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All JLPT Grammar

LevelAll 686N5 73N4 95N3 145N2 188N1 185
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JLPT grammar levels are community estimates, not official (no official lists have been published since the 2010 revision).

N5

  1. 〜から〜までNeutralMarks a range with a starting point and an end point: (1) from one time to another; (2) from one place to another. It can also mark a range of items or people, as in 'from A to B'.
  2. 〜てもいいですかNeutralAsks for permission: "May I ~?" / "Is it all right if ~?" (1) asking whether the speaker may do something; (2) checking whether an action is acceptable in a certain place or situation; (3) asking whether someone else may do something, as in 子供がここで遊んでもいいですか.
  3. 〜で来ますNeutralExpresses how someone comes somewhere: (1) the particle で marks the means of transportation, 'come by ~'; (2) it can also mark the number of people or manner, as in 一人で来ます 'come alone'.
  4. 〜ないNeutralThe plain (non-polite) negative form, meaning "not": (1) negates verbs ("do not / will not do"); (2) negates い-adjectives, な-adjectives and nouns ("is not").
  5. 〜なかったNeutralThe plain past negative form, used to say that something did not happen or was not the case in the past: (1) with verbs, 'did not do'; (2) with adjectives and nouns, 'was not'.
  6. 〜は〜が好きですNeutralExpresses that someone (marked by は) likes something (marked by が): "X likes Y." It is used to talk about preferences such as food, hobbies, and people.
  7. 〜は〜ですNeutral〜は〜です makes a polite statement about a topic, identifying or classifying it, or describing a quality it has.
  8. 〜は〜ですかNeutralA polite question about a topic: (1) "Is A B?", asking whether the topic A is the noun B (a yes/no question); (2) with a question word in the B slot, "What / who / where / whose … is A?". It is the question form of 〜は〜です, made by adding か.
  9. 〜は〜ではありませんNeutralThe polite negative of 〜は〜です: "X is not Y." The topic marked by は is stated not to be, or not to belong to, the category or description that follows.
  10. 〜ほど〜ないNeutralExpresses a negative comparison: 'A is not as ~ as B.' In AはBほど〜ない, B is the standard, and A falls short of it in the quality described.
  11. 〜ますかNeutralThe polite question form of a verb: the ます form plus the question particle か. (1) It asks yes/no or question-word questions about someone's actions or habits; (2) it asks about the listener's intention or plans, and so can also work as a direct invitation or offer.
  12. 〜や〜などNeutralLists a few representative nouns as examples from a larger group, implying there are other items too: 'A, B, and so on' / 'things like A and B'.
  13. かNeutralSentence-final particle that turns a statement into a question. (1) It marks yes/no and question-word questions; (2) it is repeated after each option to ask which one the listener chooses.
  14. がNeutral(1) Particle that marks the grammatical subject, especially with existence verbs like いる/ある and when presenting new or noticed information; (2) conjunctive particle meaning 'but', joining two contrasting clauses.
  15. か〜かNeutralMarks two or more alternatives, A or B. (1) It asks someone to choose between options; (2) it forms an embedded question meaning 'whether A or B' inside a larger sentence.
  16. がありますFormalPolite way to say that something inanimate exists or is located somewhere. Senses: (1) there is / there are (objects, plants); (2) someone has something (possession); (3) an event takes place.
  17. があるNeutralExpresses existence: (1) an inanimate thing or plant exists or is located somewhere; (2) an event takes place or is scheduled; (3) someone has or owns something.
  18. がいますNeutralExpresses that a living, self-moving being (a person or an animal) exists or is present somewhere. It is the polite form of がいる and is typically paired with a location marked by に.
  19. からNeutral(1) Marks a starting point in time or space, 'from'; (2) after a clause, gives a reason or cause, 'because, so'.
  20. くするNeutralAttached to an い-adjective, くする means "to make something (adjective)". It describes someone deliberately changing a thing into the state the adjective expresses.
  21. くらい / ぐらいNeutral(1) About or approximately, placed after an amount, number, or duration; (2) to the extent of, or as … as, expressing a comparable degree (e.g. 同じくらい "about the same", 驚いたくらい "to the extent that I was surprised").
  22. けど / けれどもCasual(1) Links clauses in contrast, meaning “but” or “although”; (2) introduces background before a request or question, making it less direct.
  23. ごろNeutral(1) Around or about a specific point in time, such as a clock time or date; (2) around a period or season, giving a rough time frame. It follows a time expression to mark an approximate time rather than an exact one.
  24. だ / ですNeutralThe copula, equivalent to 'is/am/are'. It links a topic to a noun or な-adjective. (1) です is the polite form, and it also follows い-adjectives to make them polite; (2) だ is the plain form, used in casual speech and plain-style writing.
  25. たいNeutralExpresses a desire to do something: "want to (do)." In ordinary statements it expresses the speaker's own wish. In questions it asks about the listener's wish.
  26. だけNeutral(1) だけ marks a limit, meaning “only” or “just”; (2) in できるだけ, it expresses the greatest extent possible.
  27. たことがあるNeutralExpresses past experience: (1) having done something at least once at some unspecified point up to now; (2) in the negative form たことがない, never having done it.
  28. たものだNeutral(1) Fondly recalls something one habitually did or experienced in the past, like English 'used to' or 'would (often)'. (2) With よく, it can express amazement or admiration at something done in the past ('I'm amazed I ~').
  29. だろうNeutral(1) Expresses the speaker's conjecture: 'probably', 'I suppose'; (2) with rising intonation, seeks the listener's agreement or confirmation: '…, right?'. It is the plain-form counterpart of でしょう.
  30. つもりNeutralExpresses a speaker's intention or plan: (1) "intend to / plan to" do (or not do) something; (2) in the past form つもりだった, an intention that was not carried out, "had meant to."
  31. て / でNeutralThe て-form of a verb or adjective (or noun + で) links a cause to its result, meaning "because of ~, (so) ~." It often explains why someone felt an emotion or why a situation came about.
  32. ているNeutralAttaches to a verb to describe (1) an action in progress; (2) a state resulting from a completed change; (3) a habitual or repeated action.
  33. てからNeutralAttaches to a verb to show that one action happens first and another follows. (1) "after doing A, (then) B", with emphasis on the order of events; (2) "since A", marking the starting point of a continuing situation.
  34. てくださいNeutralA polite way to ask or tell someone to do something: (1) a request or instruction, 'please do ~'; (2) a polite invitation or offer for the listener to do something for their own benefit.
  35. でしょうNeutral(1) Expresses the speaker's conjecture or a probable outcome, 'probably', 'I think'; (2) with rising intonation, seeks the listener's confirmation or agreement, 'right?', 'isn't it?'. It is the polite form of だろう.
  36. てはいけないNeutral(1) Expresses prohibition: someone 'must not' or 'may not' do an action, usually because of rules or social norms; (2) marks a state or condition as unacceptable or not allowed.
  37. でもNeutralAttached to a noun, でも offers it as one casual example of what one might do, like 'or something'. It keeps a suggestion, invitation, or plan light and non-committal.
  38. てもいいNeutralExpresses permission: "it's okay to ~" or "you may ~." (1) With か, it asks for permission; (2) as a statement, it grants permission or says something is acceptable.
  39. とNeutral(1) Joins nouns in a list ('A and B'), usually naming the items as a complete set; (2) marks a partner or companion ('with'); (3) after a clause, marks a condition whose result follows naturally, habitually, or automatically ('when / whenever / if').
  40. どうやってNeutral"How" or "in what way": asks about the means or method of doing something. (1) It asks how to get somewhere, meaning by what transport or route; (2) it asks what method or procedure is used to do a task.
  41. とかCasualLists items as examples from a larger set, like "things like A and B" or "A, B, and so on." It implies the list is not complete and is common in casual speech.
  42. ときNeutralとき means 'when' or 'at the time of'. It marks the time at which the main clause's action or state takes place: (1) the time of an action; (2) a state or period, such as childhood.
  43. どんなNeutralA question word meaning "what kind of" or "what sort of" that comes before a noun: (1) asks which type of thing someone means or prefers; (2) asks what something is like, its nature or condition.
  44. なCasualA blunt prohibition meaning "Don't ~!" It forbids an action directly and forcefully. It is typical of shouted warnings, orders from a superior, or firm, curt commands.
  45. ないでくださいNeutralA polite request asking someone not to do something: 'please don't ~'. It is used for polite negative requests and gentle prohibitions, such as instructions to visitors, students, or customers.
  46. なくちゃCasualA casual contraction of なくては, used to say one has to or must do something. It often ends the sentence with いけない/ならない left out, much like saying 'I've got to…' to oneself or to a friend.
  47. なるNeutralExpresses a change of state, 'to become'. (1) With adjectives, something comes to have a new quality; (2) with nouns, someone or something becomes a new thing, status, or role.
  48. に / へNeutralParticles that mark the destination or direction of movement. (1) に marks the place someone goes, comes, returns or commutes to; (2) へ marks the direction toward which someone moves. With movement verbs the two are often interchangeable.
  49. にいくNeutralExpresses the purpose of going somewhere: "go (in order) to do something." The action before に is the reason for the movement shown by 行く.
  50. にするNeutral(1) To decide on or choose something, as when ordering or picking among options; (2) to deliberately make something or someone take on a certain state or role (AをBにする).
  51. ねCasualSentence-final particle that invites the listener's agreement or shares a feeling: (1) seeking agreement about something both people know or observe; (2) expressing an impression the speaker expects the listener to share; (3) checking or confirming information, like 'right?'.
  52. のNeutralの (1) links nouns to show possession or belonging; (2) links nouns to describe an attribute such as material; (3) turns a verb or adjective phrase into a noun-like expression.
  53. のが下手NeutralExpresses that someone is bad or unskilled at doing a certain action: "to be poor at doing ~". The verb phrase is turned into a noun with の and marked with が.
  54. のが好きNeutral(1) Expresses that someone likes doing an action: の turns the verb phrase into a noun, and 好き marks it as something the subject enjoys; (2) With adjectives, の means 'one/ones', expressing a liking for things with a certain quality (辛いのが好き).
  55. のが上手NeutralExpresses that someone is good or skillful at doing an action: "X is good at V-ing." The verb phrase is nominalized with の and followed by が上手.
  56. のでNeutralIndicates a reason or cause: "because", "since", "so". The clause before ので gives the reason, and the clause after it gives the result, decision, or request, with the link presented as fairly objective and soft.
  57. はNeutralTopic particle: (1) marks what the sentence is about, with the rest of the sentence commenting on it; (2) sets the marked item in contrast with other items.
  58. はどうですかNeutral(1) Asks the listener's opinion or impression of something: "How is ~?" / "What do you think of ~?"; (2) Proposes something, such as an item or an activity, and leaves the decision to the listener: "How about ~?"
  59. ほうがいいNeutralGives advice or says which option is better, like English "you had better" or "it's better to": (1) with the た形, it recommends doing something; (2) with the ない形, it recommends not doing something; (3) after adjectives, nouns + の, or other plain forms, it says one choice is preferable.
  60. ましょうかNeutralA polite pattern for offering or proposing an action: (1) the speaker offers to do something for the listener ("Shall I…?"); (2) the speaker proposes doing something together ("Shall we…?").
  61. ませんかNeutral(1) A polite invitation, 'won't you…? / why don't we…?', usually to do something together with the speaker; (2) a polite suggestion of an activity or option, leaving the choice to the listener; (3) grammatically a negative question, so it can also be a literal 'don't you…?'.
  62. まだNeutralAn adverb that marks a situation as not yet changed: (1) with an affirmative predicate, 'still,' meaning a state or action continues; (2) with a negative predicate, 'not yet,' meaning an expected event has not happened so far.
  63. までNeutralMarks a limit or end point: "until" (time), "as far as / up to" (place or extent). It shows how far an action, state, or range continues.
  64. もNeutral(1) Adds someone or something to what has already been mentioned: “also” or “too”; (2) with a question word and a negative predicate, expresses “not any,” as in “nowhere.”
  65. もうNeutralAn adverb with several senses: (1) 'already', showing that an action is complete or a state or point has been reached; (2) 'no longer / not anymore' with a negative predicate; (3) 'more / another' before a quantity.
  66. やNeutralA particle that links nouns to give a partial, non-exhaustive list: 'A and B (among other things)'. It implies that other similar items exist besides those named.
  67. よCasualSentence-final particle that directs information or a viewpoint at the listener: (1) tells them something the speaker thinks they don't know or need to be reminded of; (2) asserts the speaker's opinion with emphasis; (3) adds insistence to invitations and requests. It is roughly like "you know" or "I tell you."
  68. よりNeutral(1) Marks the standard of comparison, like English "than": the noun before より is what something else is compared against; (2) in formal or written language, marks a starting point in time or place, like "from".
  69. より〜ほうがNeutralCompares two things or actions: B is more ~ than A. より marks A as the standard of comparison, while ほうが marks B as having more of the stated quality.
  70. をNeutral(1) Marks the direct object of a transitive verb; (2) marks the route or space moved through with verbs of motion; (3) marks the place one leaves with verbs such as 出る.
  71. をくださいNeutralUsed to ask someone to give you something: "Please give me N" or "N, please." It is the basic polite way to request an object or to order in shops and restaurants.
  72. 前にNeutralShows that one action or event happens before another: (1) "before (doing) ~" after a verb or noun; (2) "~ ago" after a length of time.
  73. 方NeutralAttached to a verb stem, 方 (かた) forms a noun meaning "the way of doing" or "how to do" something, e.g. 読み方 "way of reading."

N4

  1. 〜しか〜ないNeutralA limiting expression used with a negative predicate: (1) "only / nothing but," often stressing that the amount or range is small; (2) after a verb's dictionary form, しかない means "there is no choice but to…," showing that no other option exists.
  2. 〜たほうがいいNeutralGives advice or a recommendation: 'you had better…', 'you should…'. It suggests that doing the action is the better choice for the listener, often in a specific situation.
  3. 〜ていただくFormalHumble form of 〜てもらう: (1) to receive the favor of having someone, usually a superior or customer, do something for you; (2) in request forms such as 〜ていただいてもよろしいでしょうか, to politely ask someone to do something.
  4. 〜と言うNeutralIntroduces what someone says: (1) quotes their words directly or reports them indirectly; (2) in と言われている, reports what is said without naming a speaker.
  5. 〜ないほうがいいNeutral(1) Gives advice or a recommendation against doing something: 'you'd better not ~' or 'it's better not to ~'. Avoiding the action is expected to lead to a better result; (2) With adjectives and nouns, it states that it is preferable for something not to be a certain way.
  6. 〜ように言うNeutralReports an instruction, request, or piece of advice given to someone: 'tell someone to do / not to do something.' The person being told is marked with に.
  7. いらっしゃるFormalAn honorific (尊敬語) verb that raises the person being talked about: (1) to be/stay (for いる); (2) to come (for 来る); (3) to go (for 行く). It is used for the actions of teachers, superiors, customers and others you respect.
  8. おきにNeutralMarks regular spacing between repeated actions or placements. 一日おきに means every other day, while 20ページおきに means every 20 pages; the count does not always work the same way across units.
  9. かいCasualA sentence-final question particle for casual yes/no questions. It adds a soft, friendly tone and is typically used by men or older speakers when talking to equals or people of lower status.
  10. かしらCasualSentence-final particle for wondering about something, roughly 'I wonder…'. (1) A soft, musing question, often self-directed, expressing doubt or a tentative concern; (2) after a negative form, a gentle request or wish (e.g. 〜てくれないかしら).
  11. がするNeutral(1) Reports a smell, sound, taste, or voice that is perceived; (2) expresses a bodily sensation, such as nausea.
  12. かどうかNeutralかどうか turns a yes/no question into an embedded clause meaning “whether or not.” It can be used with verbs such as 分かる and 確認する.
  13. かなCasualSentence-final particle for wondering aloud or asking oneself: (1) "I wonder …", expressing uncertainty or light doubt, sometimes as a soft question half-addressed to the listener; (2) with a negative verb (〜ないかな), a casual hope that something will happen.
  14. かもしれないNeutralExpresses that something is possible but uncertain: 'may,' 'might,' 'perhaps.' The speaker is not confident and allows that the opposite could also be true.
  15. がるNeutralAttached to adjectives of feeling or desire, がる turns them into verbs that describe how someone else shows that feeling through words, looks, or behavior: (1) showing signs of a feeling; (2) showing that they want something (欲しがる).
  16. ございますFormalA very polite (丁寧語) verb used in formal speech: (1) a polite form of ある, meaning 'there is / to have'; (2) as でございます, a formal polite copula replacing です; (3) after sound-changed い-adjectives, a formal polite way to state a quality.
  17. ことができるNeutralExpresses that something can be done: (1) a person's ability to do something; (2) that something is possible or allowed because of the circumstances.
  18. ことにするNeutralExpresses a conscious decision by the subject to do or not do something. The subject is often the speaker, but it can also be another person or an organization. The past form ことにした reports a decision already made, and ことにする announces a decision being made now.
  19. ことになるNeutral(1) Indicates that something has been decided or arranged, typically presented as settled by others or by circumstances rather than as a deliberate personal choice; (2) expresses that a situation turns out to be, or logically amounts to, a certain result or conclusion.
  20. さCasualA casual sentence-final particle. (1) It states something as obvious or a matter of course, often with resignation or a shrug; (2) it adds a self-assured, confident tone to the speaker's assertion.
  21. させてくださいNeutralA polite request for permission to do something oneself: "please let me ~" / "allow me to ~". It is used (1) to ask permission or time for one's own action, and (2) to eagerly volunteer for a task.
  22. させられるNeutralCausative-passive: (1) the subject is made to do something by someone else, usually against their will, with the person applying pressure marked by に; (2) the subject is made to feel or think something by an event or experience, as in 考えさせられる.
  23. させるNeutralThe causative form shows that someone causes another person to act: (1) makes them do something; (2) lets or allows them to do it. Context determines which sense is intended.
  24. しCasualLists reasons or features while implying there may be more: (1) stacks several points ('and what's more…') that lead to a conclusion; (2) gives one reason as a representative example, suggesting other unstated reasons.
  25. じゃないかCasualA sentence-final expression that is not a real negative question. It (1) asserts something the speaker has noticed or realized, often with surprise, inviting agreement; (2) after a volitional form, makes a strong invitation or call to action; (3) reproaches or reminds the listener of something obvious.
  26. すぎるNeutralExpresses that an action or state goes beyond an appropriate or desirable level: 'too much', 'too ~'. It usually implies an undesirable result, though in casual speech it can also express enthusiastic praise: (1) doing an action to excess; (2) a quality being excessive.
  27. そうだNeutralExpresses hearsay: the speaker is passing on information heard or read from another source, 'I hear that…' or 'they say that…'. The source is often stated with によると or では.
  28. そうに / そうなNeutralExpresses an impression based on how someone or something appears. (1) そうに describes how an action looks; (2) そうな describes a noun by its apparent quality; (3) with a verb stem, it can suggest that something looks about to happen.
  29. それでもNeutralA conjunction meaning "even so" or "nevertheless." It introduces a fact or action that happens despite the situation just described, often one that goes against what the listener would expect.
  30. そんなにNeutralそんなに means “that much” or “to that extent,” pointing to a degree understood from context. (1) With a negative, it means “not that ~”; (2) with an action, it can describe doing something to that extent.
  31. たがるNeutralExpresses that someone other than the speaker wants to do something, judged from their outward behavior or signs: (1) someone is visibly showing a desire; (2) someone habitually tends to want to do something.
  32. だけでNeutral(1) 'Just by (doing) X' / 'merely X': X alone is enough to bring about the result that follows; (2) with nouns, 'with only X' / 'by X alone'.
  33. たところNeutralExpresses that an action has just been completed at the moment of speaking. It emphasizes the point in time immediately after the action finished.
  34. たばかりNeutralIndicates that an action or event happened only a short time ago. The speaker judges how recent it feels, so it can be days or even months ago. It often explains a present situation: "(I) just did X."
  35. たらNeutral(1) A conditional meaning 'if' or 'when/once'; with actions or events, the main clause follows once the condition is realized, while with states it simply means 'if'. (2) With a past-tense main clause, 'when I did X, (I found that) Y', describing a discovery or unexpected result.
  36. たらどうCasualMakes a gentle suggestion to the listener: "Why don't you ~?" or "How about ~ing?" Literally, it means "how would it be if you did ~?"
  37. ってCasualA casual spoken particle with several uses: (1) naming, "a ~ called ~" (= という, also っていう); (2) marking a topic, "as for ~ / speaking of ~" (= というのは / は); (3) quoting, "that …" before 言う, 聞く etc. (= と); (4) at the end of a sentence, reporting hearsay, "I hear that … / they say …".
  38. づらいNeutralAttached to a verb, づらい means that doing the action is difficult for the person involved: (1) emotionally awkward or uncomfortable; (2) physically difficult or uncomfortable.
  39. てあげるNeutralDoing something as a favor for someone else. The person doing the favor can be the speaker, someone on the speaker's side, or a third person helping another third person. The receiver is not the speaker.
  40. てあるNeutralDescribes a state that results from someone's deliberate action, usually with the nuance that it was done on purpose or in preparation. The agent is typically not mentioned.
  41. ていくNeutral(1) Describes a change or action that continues or progresses from now into the future, often gradually; (2) describes doing something and then going, or movement away from the speaker.
  42. ていただけませんかFormalA polite, deferential request meaning “Could you please …?” It asks someone to do something for the speaker.
  43. ているところNeutralExpresses that someone is right in the middle of an action at a particular moment: (1) what was happening when something else occurred; (2) what one is doing right now, used to explain one's present situation.
  44. ておく / とくNeutral(1) Doing something in advance to prepare for a later need or event; (2) doing something and leaving the result in place, or leaving a situation as it is.
  45. てくるNeutral(1) Describes a change or process that has been developing gradually up to the present; (2) describes doing an action somewhere and then returning, or an action or movement directed toward the speaker.
  46. てくれるNeutralUsed when someone else does something for the speaker or the speaker's in-group. It presents the action as a favor or kindness received, often with a sense of gratitude.
  47. でございますFormalA very polite form of the copula です/だ, meaning 'is / am / are', used in formal and service settings: (1) to state one's name or identity; (2) to present or describe something to a customer or guest.
  48. てしまう / ちゃうNeutralAttached to a verb, it marks an action as (1) fully completed or done with; (2) done unintentionally or with regret, often translated as 'end up doing' or 'go and do.' ちゃう / じゃう is the casual contraction.
  49. てすみませんNeutralApologizes for something the speaker did or caused: 'I'm sorry for ~.' (1) apologizing for trouble one caused; (2) apologetically thanking someone for a favor that put them out.
  50. ではないかWritten(1) A rhetorical 'isn't it?' that states something the speaker regards as obvious, often with surprise or reproach; (2) most often in the form のではないか, a tentative guess: 'I think it may be…'.
  51. てほしいNeutralExpresses the speaker's wish that someone else would do something, or that a situation would come about: (1) 'I want (someone) to do ~'; (2) 'I hope ~ happens.'
  52. てみるNeutralTry doing something to see what it is like or what happens. (1) Doing, or proposing to do, an action as a trial or experiment; (2) in the past tense, reporting what you found out after actually trying it.
  53. てもNeutralConcessive 'even if / even though': the main clause holds regardless of, or contrary to what one would expect from, the condition. (1) hypothetical 'even if'; (2) factual 'even though'; (3) with question words or どんなに/いくら, 'no matter what/how'.
  54. てやるCasual(1) Doing something for someone of equal or lower status, or for an animal or plant, stated casually or bluntly; (2) doing something with strong determination, or out of spite to someone's disadvantage.
  55. てよかったNeutralExpresses the speaker's gladness or relief about something that actually happened: "I'm glad that…" or "It's a good thing that…". It is often used when a hoped-for outcome was achieved or a bad outcome was avoided.
  56. といい / たらいいNeutral(1) Expresses the speaker's hope that something will happen or be the case: 'I hope…', 'it would be nice if…'; (2) with のに, a wish tinged with dissatisfaction, regret or worry, often about something contrary to reality: 'if only…'; (3) also gives or asks for advice: 'you should…', 'what should I do?'
  57. というNeutral(1) Links a name or label to a noun: "(a) N called/named ~"; (2) with と + the verb 言う, reports speech or thought: "say that ~"; (3) connects a clause to a noun such as 話 or ニュース that states its content: "the ~ that …".
  58. ということNeutralTurns a clause into a noun phrase meaning “the fact that …” or “the idea of …”. It presents the clause's content as a piece of information or a concept that can then be discussed, known, or evaluated.
  59. ところNeutralMarks what stage an action is at: (1) just about to do it; (2) in the middle of doing it; (3) having just done it. It is often followed by だ/です, or by に to describe a moment that is interrupted.
  60. と思うNeutral(1) States what the speaker thinks, believes, or guesses; (2) in a question such as と思いますか, asks what the listener thinks.
  61. なくてはいけない / なくてはならないNeutralExpresses obligation or necessity: "must" or "have to." It literally means "if one does not do X, it is not acceptable." (1) It can express a need arising from personal circumstances; (2) it can also state a general rule or duty.
  62. なくてもいいNeutralExpresses that something is not necessary: (1) after a verb, 'don't have to / need not do'; (2) with ない meaning 'not have', 'it's fine without (something)'. In question form it asks whether one may skip or do without something.
  63. なければいけない / なければならないNeutralExpresses obligation or necessity, "must" or "have to"; literally "if one does not do X, it won't do": (1) a need arising from one's situation, such as a deadline; (2) a duty, rule, or general obligation. なければならない sounds more formal; なければいけない is more common in everyday speech.
  64. なさいNeutralAttached to a verb, it forms a gentle but firm command. (1) Spoken instructions from someone with authority, such as a parent or teacher, to someone under their care; (2) written directions, such as exam questions.
  65. なさるFormalHonorific (尊敬語) equivalent of する, used to show respect for the person doing the action. (1) to do (respectful); (2) with に, to decide on or choose something (respectful form of 〜にする).
  66. などNeutral(1) 'Such as', 'and so on', 'etc.': marks items as examples from a larger set, often after a list with や; (2) softens a suggestion or statement by presenting something as just one possibility ('something like').
  67. ならNeutralMarks a condition or assumption, often one just mentioned or inferred: (1) 'if (it is the case that) …'; (2) 'if you are going to …', introducing advice or a suggestion; (3) after a noun, 'as for …', picking up a topic.
  68. にくいNeutralAttaches to a verb to mean that an action is hard to do: (1) difficult to do, often because of a feature of the object or situation; (2) not likely to happen, or not prone to something.
  69. のにNeutral(1) Links two clauses when the second is contrary to what the first leads you to expect: "even though, despite." It often carries surprise, frustration, or disappointment. (2) At the end of a sentence, it expresses regret or dissatisfaction that something did not turn out as hoped.
  70. の中でNeutralMeans "among" or "out of" a group, set, or range. It is typically paired with 一番 to single out one member as the most or best.
  71. ばNeutralA conditional meaning "if". It presents a condition and the result that follows when it holds: (1) a condition that brings about a result; (2) a hypothetical state on which the speaker's decision depends.
  72. ばかりNeutralAttached to a number or quantity, ばかり means "about" or "approximately." It gives a rough amount, length of time, or distance, and before 前 it tells roughly how long ago something happened.
  73. はずがないNeutralExpresses the speaker's strong conviction that something cannot possibly be true or happen: (1) a judgment of impossibility based on known facts or reasoning; (2) firm disbelief or denial, often an emotional reaction to a claim or rumor, as in そんなはずがない！
  74. はずだNeutralExpresses the speaker's confident expectation based on some reason or known facts: 'should be', 'is supposed to', 'must be'. It can also express sudden understanding, as in 'no wonder'.
  75. までにNeutralMarks a deadline: something must happen no later than a stated time or event, 'by' or 'by the time.' (1) by a set time or date; (2) by the time some event happens.
  76. ままNeutralIndicates that a state stays unchanged while something else happens or continues: (1) doing something with a prior state still in place; (2) with する/なる, leaving something in a state, or something remaining in a state, as it is.
  77. みたいだCasual(1) Resemblance or simile: 'like', 'similar to'; (2) Conjecture based on what the speaker sees, hears or senses: 'seems', 'looks like'.
  78. みたいに/みたいなCasualCasual expression meaning "like": (1) compares something to what it resembles ("like a child"); (2) names a representative example of a category ("a big city like Tokyo"). みたいに works adverbially, modifying a later verb or adjective; みたいな works adjectivally, modifying a noun.
  79. やすいNeutralAttached to a verb stem, it means (1) something is easy to do, or (2) something readily happens or is prone to a certain change or condition.
  80. ようだNeutral(1) Expresses the speaker's inference from what they observe or sense: "it seems / it looks like"; (2) Describes resemblance: "like / as if."
  81. ようと思うNeutral(1) States the speaker's intention to do something, often an idea formed around the time of speaking: "I think I'll…"; (2) with と思っている, describes an intention held for some time, including someone else's.
  82. ようにするNeutral(1) Making a conscious effort to do, or not do, something, often as a habit: 'try to', 'make a point of'. ようにしている describes an ongoing practice; (2) arranging things so that a certain result or state comes about.
  83. ようになるNeutralExpresses a change in ability, habit, or state: (1) coming to be able to do something, used with potential verbs; (2) starting to do something regularly, or a situation changing into a new pattern.
  84. ように見えるNeutralExpresses that something looks or appears a certain way, based mainly on what the speaker sees: (1) it appears to be so, often with a hint that reality may differ; (2) with まるで, it looks just like something else.
  85. らしいNeutral(1) Expresses a conclusion the speaker draws from hearsay or other evidence without claiming certainty: "apparently," "I hear," "it seems"; (2) attached directly to a noun, it can mean "typical of" or "befitting" that noun.
  86. 間にNeutralMarks a period within which something happens or is completed. It can mean “while,” “during,” or “within the time that.”
  87. 急にNeutralAn adverb meaning 'suddenly' or 'all of a sudden', used when a change or action happens abruptly and unexpectedly. It can also mean 'at short notice'.
  88. 後でNeutralMeans "after ~": it marks an action or event that comes first, with the main clause describing what happens afterward. It is attached to a verb in た-form or to a noun with の.
  89. 始めるNeutralAttached to a verb stem, 始める means 'to begin doing' something: (1) the moment an action gets under way; (2) the start of an ongoing or habitual activity from some point in time. It works with deliberate actions and with natural events.
  90. 終わるNeutralAttached to a verb stem, 終わる means "to finish doing" something. It marks that an action has been carried through to its end.
  91. 出すNeutralAttached to a verb's ます-stem, 〜出す marks a sudden or unexpected start: (1) someone suddenly bursts into an action, such as crying; (2) a natural phenomenon or event begins abruptly, such as rain.
  92. 場合はFormal"In the case that ~" or "if ~." It singles out a situation as a case to be dealt with: (1) a rule or outcome that applies in that case; (2) what someone should do in that case. The situation may be hypothetical or may already hold for some people.
  93. 続けるNeutralAttached to a verb, 続ける means 'to keep doing' or 'to continue doing' something: (1) an action that goes on without stopping over a stretch of time; (2) an effort that is kept up or persisted in, often until some end point.
  94. 必要があるNeutralSays that doing something is necessary: "need to (do)" or "it is necessary to (do)". It presents the necessity as an objective requirement set by a deadline, rule, situation, or goal.
  95. 予定だNeutralExpresses that something is planned or scheduled. The plan is presented as an arrangement or expected course of events rather than a mere wish, though it need not be final. Often translated 'plan to', 'be scheduled to', 'be due to', or 'be supposed to'.

N3

  1. 〜こそ〜がNeutralAcknowledges a fact marked by こそ, then uses が or けれど to introduce a contrasting main point: “It’s true that X, but…”
  2. 〜ことにしているNeutralExpresses a habit or rule that the subject decided on and keeps following: (1) "make it a rule to…"; (2) with the negative, "make it a rule not to…".
  3. 〜さえ〜ばNeutralExpresses that one condition alone is enough to bring about a result: “if only X,” “as long as X,” “all you need is X.” The item marked by さえ is presented as the single, minimal requirement.
  4. 〜たきりNeutralExpresses that after an action was done, the expected follow-up never happened, and things have stayed that way since. The main clause is usually negative (e.g. 〜ていない). Equivalent to "(did X) and never … since" or "only (did X) and then nothing more."
  5. 〜たところだNeutralIndicates that an action has just been completed; the speaker is at the point right after it. Similar to English 'have just done'.
  6. 〜たり〜たりするNeutral(1) Lists a few representative actions or states as examples, implying there are others ("do things like A and B"); (2) describes states or actions that alternate or keep changing ("sometimes A, sometimes B").
  7. 〜つつもWrittenExpresses concession: 'although / even while (doing or thinking) X', the subject still does Y. X is often awareness or a feeling, and Y goes against it.
  8. 〜ているところだNeutral(1) The subject is right in the middle of doing an action at this very moment; (2) it is often used to explain what one is busy with, e.g. when putting off or declining something else.
  9. 〜てしかたがないNeutralExpresses that a feeling, desire, or physical sensation is so strong the speaker cannot suppress it: 'unbearably ~', 'can't help feeling ~', 'terribly ~'. (1) Uncontrollable emotions or longings; (2) overwhelming bodily sensations.
  10. 〜ないうちにNeutral(1) Before something happens, especially something undesirable or outside one's control; used to act while the chance remains. (2) While something is not being done, often in phrases like 知らないうちに, meaning 'before one knows it.'
  11. 〜ないことにはNeutralUnless X happens, Y cannot happen. It presents X as an indispensable precondition. The second clause is typically negative or expresses that something is impossible or won't progress.
  12. 〜ほかないWrittenExpresses that there is no option other than the stated action, so one must do it, often with a sense of resignation. Equivalent to 'have no choice but to' or 'can only'.
  13. 〜るところだNeutralIndicates that someone is just about to do something: the action is imminent but has not yet started. It describes the moment right before an action begins.
  14. あまりWrittenExpresses that a feeling or state is so intense that it leads to a result, often an involuntary one: “so … that …” or “out of extreme ….”
  15. あまりにNeutralAn adverb meaning 'too' or 'so (very) … that'. It marks a degree far beyond the normal, and a following clause usually states the consequence: (1) an undesirable result; (2) an opposite or unexpected result.
  16. あまりにもNeutralMeans 'far too' or 'so extremely (that…)'. It is an emphatic adverb stressing that a degree is excessive or overwhelming, and it is the emphatic form of あまりに.
  17. うちにNeutral(1) Do something while a condition still holds, before it changes; (2) as an activity continues, a change gradually develops.
  18. おかげでNeutral(1) Thanks to; credits a person, thing, or action for a good result, often with appreciation; (2) sarcastically, “thanks to” a cause of an unwelcome result.
  19. かけるNeutralAttached to a verb stem, it shows that something is only partway done or on the verge of happening: (1) an action has started but is not finished; (2) something almost happens or is about to happen.
  20. がたいWrittenAttached to a verb, がたい means that an action is very hard or nearly impossible to do. The reason is usually psychological or emotional, such as disbelief, disapproval or reluctance, rather than physical.
  21. がちNeutralExpresses that something tends to happen often or that someone is prone to a certain state, usually something undesirable: (1) be apt to fall into a negative state; (2) do something frequently, more often than is desirable.
  22. か何かCasual"X or something (like that)": (1) names X as a representative item while allowing that something similar would do just as well; (2) offers a vague guess about something the speaker is not sure of.
  23. きりNeutral(1) After a noun, 'only' or 'just', limiting something to that amount or those people; (2) after a verb in た-form, 'since doing ~ (and nothing further)', meaning an action happened and the expected follow-up did not occur during the period described.
  24. きるNeutralAttached to a verb stem, きる means (1) to do something completely or all the way to the end; (2) with certain verbs, to be in a state to the fullest degree (e.g., 疲れきる 'be utterly exhausted').
  25. くせにCasualMeans "even though / despite the fact that." (1) Criticizes or complains about someone whose behavior doesn't match what the first clause would lead you to expect; (2) between close people, it can also be used for light, affectionate teasing.
  26. こそNeutralAn emphatic particle that singles out one item as *the* one, meaning 'precisely,' 'this very,' or 'for sure.' (1) It stresses a noun or phrase as the one that truly matters, as opposed to others; (2) after a て-form, it means 'only by/when (doing).'
  27. こそあれWrittenA literary concessive meaning 'granted there is X, but…' or 'X may be so, but…'. (1) The speaker admits X and then asserts a contrasting Y; (2) the speaker admits X may exist and then firmly denies Y (there may be X, but not Y).
  28. こそすれWrittenUsed to say that one thing may well happen, but the opposite or a worse outcome will certainly not. It means roughly "rather X, but certainly not Y" and is always followed by a negative clause.
  29. ことNeutralTurns a clause into a noun phrase ("doing ~", "the fact that ~", "being ~"). The clause can express an action, state, property, or fact, and the phrase can then serve as the subject, topic, or object of a sentence.
  30. ことかWrittenExpresses a strong emotional exclamation about the great degree of something: 'how (very) …!', 'how much …!'. It usually pairs with degree words such as どんなに, どれほど, or なんと.
  31. ことがあるNeutral(1) After a verb in dictionary or ない-form, or after an adjective or noun, it means something happens or is the case on occasion ('sometimes'); (2) after a verb in た-form, it means one has had the experience of doing something ('have done').
  32. ことだNeutralGives strong, direct advice: "the best thing to do is…" or "you should…". It is often paired with a condition (〜なら, 〜たければ) that states the listener's goal.
  33. ごとにNeutralMarks repetition or distribution per unit: (1) at regular intervals of time or distance ("every ~"); (2) for each individual group, person or item separately ("each ~", "per ~"); (3) after a verb, every time an action happens.
  34. ことになっているNeutralExpresses that something is settled by a rule, custom, or prior arrangement rather than by the speaker's own choice in the moment: (1) it is a rule or custom that ...; (2) it is arranged or scheduled that ...
  35. ことはないNeutralExpresses that there is no need to do something. It is typically said to reassure or advise the listener that an action or feeling is unnecessary.
  36. さえNeutral“Even”: presents an extreme or unlikely example to imply that more obvious cases also hold. (1) Often used with a negative for “not even ~”; (2) also used with an unlikely person or thing to show how easy, obvious or widespread something is.
  37. さらにNeutral(1) Furthermore, in addition: adds another point to what was just said; (2) even more, further: shows that a degree or state increases beyond its current level.
  38. しかないNeutral(1) After a verb, it means there is no other option: "have no choice but to ~," "all one can do is ~." (2) After a noun, it means only that thing exists or is available: "there is nothing but ~."
  39. ずつNeutralAttaches to a quantity or amount. (1) The same amount goes to each person or thing. (2) An action or change proceeds by that amount at a time, i.e., gradually or unit by unit.
  40. すなわちWrittenA formal conjunction meaning 'that is,' 'namely,' or 'in other words.' It introduces a restatement, a definition, an exact equivalent, or a conclusion that amounts to the same thing as what came just before.
  41. ずにWrittenMeans 'without doing ~'. (1) It shows that the main action is done while another action is left undone, often describing how someone acted; (2) it can also mean doing one thing instead of another.
  42. ずにはいられないNeutralExpresses that someone cannot help doing something, because a strong emotion or natural impulse makes the action or reaction impossible to hold back. It corresponds to English "can't help (doing)" or "can't stop oneself from (doing)".
  43. せいぜいNeutralAn adverb meaning (1) 'at most, at best,' setting an upper limit on an amount, degree, or estimate and framing it as 'no more than this'; (2) 'as much as one can,' used to encourage someone to make the most of something, which can sound ironic.
  44. せいでNeutralBecause of, owing to. It marks the cause of an undesirable result and often implies blame on that cause.
  45. そうもないNeutralExpresses the speaker's judgment, based on how things look, that something is very unlikely to happen: "doesn't look like it will ~" or "there's no sign of ~." It is the emphatic negative of the appearance-based そうだ.
  46. それともNeutralA conjunction meaning "or" that joins two alternative questions, either asking the listener to choose one or asking which of two possibilities is true.
  47. だけでなくNeutralMeans "not only A, but also B". It presents one item or fact and adds another. The added element is often marked with も, but も is optional.
  48. だけどCasualA casual connective meaning 'but' or 'although' that links two contrasting statements. (1) After a noun or な-adjective, it joins a contrasting clause; (2) at the start of a sentence, it works as a conjunction meaning 'But…'.
  49. たってCasualA casual concessive meaning 'even if' or 'even though': the main clause holds regardless of the condition. (1) even if / even though; (2) with a question word, 'no matter what/who/how…'.
  50. たてNeutralAttached to a verb stem, たて means 'freshly ~ed' or 'just ~ed': (1) something newly made, picked, or done; (2) someone or something that has only just entered a new state.
  51. たとたんNeutralExpresses that the moment one action or change occurs, something else happens almost at once. The second event is usually sudden or unexpected.
  52. たびにNeutralMeans "every time" or "whenever". It says that on each occasion a repeatable event happens, the same result follows or the same action is taken.
  53. ためにNeutral(1) Expresses purpose: 'in order to', 'for the sake of'; (2) Expresses cause: 'because of', 'due to', often for a reason behind a result that has already happened.
  54. だらけNeutralExpresses that something is covered with or full of something, often something unpleasant or undesirable: (1) covered all over with a substance such as mud or dust; (2) full of or riddled with something, such as mistakes.
  55. ついでにNeutralExpresses doing something extra by taking the opportunity of a main activity: 'while (doing X), also…'. (1) After a verb or noun: the first activity is the main purpose, and the second is done incidentally; (2) As a standalone adverb: 'while you're at it', 'incidentally'.
  56. っけCasualA casual sentence-final particle that (1) asks for confirmation of something the speaker once knew but has forgotten or only half-remembers; (2) with the past tense, recalls or reminisces about past events.
  57. っぱなしCasual(1) Doing something and then leaving it in that state without dealing with it, often out of carelessness; (2) continuing an action or remaining in a state for a long, unbroken stretch, often with a sense that it is excessive, though it can also express sympathy or admiration for sustained effort.
  58. っぽいCasual(1) Adds “-ish” or “-like” to describe a quality or impression; (2) describes a habitual tendency or trait; (3) in casual speech, means “seems like.”
  59. つまりNeutralA conjunction meaning 'in other words' or 'in short'. (1) It restates what was just said in different terms; (2) it sums up or draws the conclusion that follows from the preceding content.
  60. つもりでNeutralLinks a clause to the intention or mindset behind an action: (1) with the intention of, planning to; (2) with the idea that, treating something as. Sense 2 is common when the outcome differs from what was meant.
  61. てごらんCasualGently urges the listener to try doing something, much like "try ~ing" or "have a go at ~". It is typically said by adults to children or by seniors to juniors.
  62. てしょうがないCasualExpresses that a feeling, desire, or physical sensation is so strong it can hardly be controlled or borne: 'extremely', 'so … I can't stand it'. It often follows たい to express strong longing.
  63. てはじめてNeutralてはじめて means that something happened or became possible only after a preceding event or experience. It often describes a realization gained through that experience.
  64. てもかまわない / てもかまいませんNeutralExpresses that something is acceptable or that the speaker does not mind: (1) "it's fine if…, I don't mind if…" (permission or acceptance); (2) with a negative (～なくてもかまわない), "it's fine not to…, you don't have to…".
  65. てもらうNeutralExpresses receiving the benefit of someone else's action: (1) having someone do something for you, often with gratitude; (2) getting or asking someone to do something.
  66. ても始まらないCasualExpresses that doing or being a certain way will not help or change the situation: “It’s no use ~.” It can lead into a suggestion to do something more constructive.
  67. てやまないFormalExpresses a strong, lasting feeling (wishing, hoping, praying, loving, respecting) that the speaker holds continuously: 'never cease to ~', 'sincerely ~ from the bottom of one's heart'.
  68. ということだNeutral(1) Reports information heard or read from another source: 'I hear that…', 'they say that…'; (2) States a conclusion or rephrases what was just said: 'that means…', 'in other words…'.
  69. というのはNeutral(1) Marks a word or statement as the topic in order to define, explain, or comment on it: 'X is… / X means…'; (2) at the start of a sentence, introduces the reason for, or an explanation of, what was just said: 'That's because…'.
  70. というよりNeutralUsed to say that one description, reason or purpose fits less well than another: 'rather than X, it's more (like) Y.' The speaker weighs two ways of characterizing something and picks the second as the more accurate one.
  71. といってもNeutralAlthough one says X, the reality is less or different than X suggests. The speaker grants X, then corrects or limits the expectation it creates: (1) it is X, but not in the way you might assume; (2) X is true, but only to a limited degree.
  72. とおりNeutralExpresses that something is done or happens in the same way as a model, instruction, or statement: (1) 'in accordance with / following' a guide or instruction; (2) 'just as' someone said, expected, or predicted.
  73. とおりにNeutralExpresses that something is done or happens exactly as something else says, shows, or plans: (1) acting in accordance with instructions, a plan, or a model; (2) an outcome matching what was said or expected.
  74. ところがNeutral(1) As a sentence-initial conjunction: "however / but", introducing a turn of events contrary to what was expected. (2) 動詞た形＋ところが: "when I did X, (unexpectedly) Y", linking an action to an unexpected result within one sentence.
  75. どころかNeutralどころか rejects X in favor of a more surprising reality: (1) far from X, the opposite happened; (2) let alone X, even a more basic Y was not possible.
  76. ところでNeutralA conjunction meaning 'by the way' or 'incidentally.' It is used to change the topic, either to something unrelated or from preliminary remarks to the main point.
  77. としたら / とすればNeutralExpresses a hypothetical assumption: 'if we suppose that…', 'assuming that…'. The speaker sets up a premise, real or imagined, and then states what would follow, often a judgment, inference, or question.
  78. としてNeutral(1) As; in the role, capacity, or status of (a student, a teacher, etc.). (2) As; serving as or in the form of something (for reference, as a gift, etc.).
  79. とは限らないNeutralMeans "not necessarily" or "is not always the case." It marks a partial negation: the speaker denies that a common assumption or general expectation always holds, while allowing that it is sometimes true.
  80. とみえる / とみえてWrittenExpresses the speaker's inference, drawn from something observed, that a situation seems to be the case ("it appears that ~"). (1) Sentence-final とみえる states the inference; (2) connective とみえて states the inference first, then the observed evidence behind it.
  81. と共にWritten(1) Together with a person or thing; (2) as one thing changes, another changes along with it; (3) at the same time as an event, or as well as being something.
  82. ないことはないNeutralA double negative meaning 'it's not that ~ doesn't/can't.' It gives a weak, reserved affirmation: something is possible or true, but with hesitation or conditions, often followed by a reservation.
  83. ないでNeutralAttaches to a verb to mean (1) 'without doing' something while doing the main action, or (2) 'instead of doing' something, doing another action in its place.
  84. ないとCasual(1) 'If (one) doesn't ~, (an undesirable result follows)': a negative condition leading to a bad outcome; (2) used alone at the end of a sentence as a casual shortening of 〜ないといけない, meaning 'I/you have to ~'.
  85. ながら / いながら / ながらもNeutral(1) Links two actions done at the same time by the same person, 'while ~ing'; (2) Expresses concession, 'although / despite', often as ながらも or いながら.
  86. なぜなら / なぜかというとNeutralA sentence-initial conjunction meaning "because" or "the reason is". It is used after a statement to introduce a new sentence explaining the reason for it.
  87. なるべくNeutralAn adverb meaning 'as ... as possible' or 'if possible'. It softens a request, wish, or intention by asking for the greatest degree that circumstances allow.
  88. なんか / なんてCasual(1) なんか / なんて singles out someone or something with a humble or dismissive nuance; (2) なんて after a clause expresses surprise or strong feeling about what happened.
  89. において / におけるWrittenA formal marker for where or in what context something takes place: (1) a place, occasion, or event; (2) a field, domain, or aspect. It works like で. において attaches to predicates, and における links two nouns.
  90. にかけてNeutral(1) 名詞から名詞にかけて marks an approximate span of time or place, from one point through another; (2) 名詞にかけては singles out a field of ability, meaning “when it comes to ….”
  91. にかわって / にかわりNeutral(1) On behalf of or in place of a person who would normally act; (2) replacing something older or previous with something new.
  92. にしたがってNeutral(1) "As X changes, Y changes too": links two gradual, proportional changes; (2) "In accordance with, following": acting as a rule, instruction, or guide directs.
  93. にしてはNeutral"For a…" / "considering that…": the speaker takes a known fact as the premise and notes that the actual situation differs from what that premise would normally lead one to expect. The evaluation can be positive or negative.
  94. についてNeutralAbout, concerning, on. Marks the topic that an act of speaking, thinking, writing, asking, or researching is directed at.
  95. につれてNeutral"As…," "in proportion to…." It shows that as one thing changes or progresses, another thing changes along with it gradually.
  96. にとってNeutral"For X; from X's standpoint." Marks the person or group from whose point of view something is judged. It is usually followed by an evaluation such as importance, difficulty, or necessity.
  97. にはNeutral(1) Attached to a dictionary-form verb, marks a goal ('in order to…, to…') whose main clause states what is necessary, important, or required to achieve it; (2) attached to a noun, marks the person from whose standpoint something is judged ('for…').
  98. によって / によるNeutralAttached to a noun to show (1) the cause of a result or the agent in a passive sentence, 'due to / by'; (2) that something varies depending on the noun, 'depending on'; (3) the means or method used, 'by means of'. による links the noun directly to a following noun.
  99. によると / によればNeutralMarks the source of information: "according to X." The statement that follows is reported from that source, so the sentence usually ends with a hearsay expression such as そうだ, らしい or ということだ.
  100. に違いないNeutralExpresses the speaker's strong conviction that something is true or will happen, based on intuition or on evidence at hand: "must be," "surely," "no doubt." It is a confident judgment, not a statement of confirmed fact.
  101. に加えてWrittenIn addition to; on top of. Presents one fact or item and then adds another of the same kind, which is usually marked with も in the following clause.
  102. に関する / に関してWrittenConcerning, regarding, or related to. It marks the topic that something is about. に関する modifies a following noun, and に関して links to a predicate. It is a more formal counterpart of について.
  103. に対してNeutralMarks the target of an action, attitude, or feeling: (1) toward, against, in response to; (2) in contrast to, whereas (comparing two things); (3) per, for every (ratios).
  104. に比べてNeutralMeans "compared with / compared to." It marks the noun or clause that serves as the standard of comparison, and the main clause then describes how something else differs from it.
  105. ばいいNeutral(1) Suggests a simple solution or course of action: 'you can just…', 'all you have to do is…'; (2) in questions with a question word (どうすればいい), asks for advice: 'what should I do?'; (3) with な or のに at the end, expresses a wish: 'I hope…', 'it would be nice if…'.
  106. ばかりかWrittenMeans "not only A, but also B." It adds a second, often more surprising or extreme item to the first. It is used for both positive and negative situations.
  107. ばかりでなくNeutral“Not only X, but also Y.” It states one fact and then adds another, usually of the same kind, to the listener's picture.
  108. はもちろんNeutral(1) 'X, of course, and also Y': it presents X as the obvious, taken-for-granted case and adds Y as another applicable item; (2) with まで or さえ, the added Y goes further, even to an unexpected extent.
  109. ばよかったNeutralExpresses regret about what did or did not happen in the past: “I should have ~” or “I wish I had ~”. It can also be directed at someone else as a hindsight comment or mild reproach.
  110. は別としてNeutralSets one factor aside so the speaker can focus on the main point: 'apart from X', 'leaving X aside'. (1) Setting aside a particular factor; (2) regardless of which alternative is true (with a question-type or 'A or B' clause).
  111. ぶりにNeutralSays that something happens again for the first time after a stated interval: 'for the first time in (period)' or 'after (period)'. (1) After a specified length of time (三年ぶりに); (2) in the fixed phrase 久しぶりに, after a long, unspecified time, 'for the first time in a long while'.
  112. ふりをするNeutralExpresses pretending: deliberately acting as if something is true when it is not, such as feigning an action, state, or feeling to mislead others or avoid something.
  113. べきNeutralExpresses what someone should or ought to do, based on moral judgment, duty, common sense, or what is fitting in light of a rule or situation. It states a firm opinion about what is right or proper.
  114. べきではないNeutralExpresses that doing something is wrong or inappropriate, based on the speaker's moral judgment or common sense: "one should not ~." It is used to criticize or advise against an action.
  115. ほどNeutral(1) Shows the degree or extent of a state, often through exaggeration: 'so … that ~' or 'to the point of ~'; (2) after a number or quantity, means 'about' or 'approximately'.
  116. まるでNeutralまるで emphasizes a striking resemblance, meaning “just like” or “as if.” With a negative predicate, it means “not at all.”
  117. もしかしたらNeutralPerhaps; maybe; possibly. An adverb that introduces a guess the speaker is unsure about, usually with a low sense of probability. It is typically paired with a sentence-final expression of possibility such as かもしれない.
  118. ようとしないNeutral(1) Someone refuses or shows no willingness to do something, as judged from their behavior, often despite expectations or urging; (2) with a non-volitional subject such as the weather, something shows no sign of happening (雨がやもうとしない, 'the rain shows no sign of stopping').
  119. ようとするNeutralExpresses an attempt at an action or the moment just before it begins: (1) try to do something, often without success; (2) be about to do something, often when something else interrupts.
  120. ような気がするNeutralExpresses the speaker's vague, intuitive feeling or impression that something is so, without firm grounds: "I have a feeling that…" or "It seems to me that…". It softens a statement and is also used for hazy recollections, such as feeling that one has seen or done something before.
  121. ように/ようなNeutralExpresses resemblance or likeness: 'like ~', 'as ~'. (1) ように works adverbially, modifying a verb or adjective to describe how something is or is done; (2) ような works adnominally, modifying a noun to describe it as being like, or of the same kind as, something else.
  122. られるNeutralPotential form of 一段動詞 and 来る: (1) the subject is able to do something; (2) an action is possible or allowed under the circumstances.
  123. わけがないNeutralExpresses the speaker's strong conviction, based on reasoning or common sense, that something is impossible or out of the question: "there's no way that…", "it can't be that…".
  124. わけだNeutralPresents a statement as the natural explanation or logical conclusion of known facts. (1) 'No wonder' or 'that explains why', when the speaker grasps a reason; (2) 'that means' or 'so', when drawing a conclusion from given information.
  125. わけではないNeutralDenies a conclusion the listener might naturally draw: "it's not that…" or "it doesn't mean that…". (1) Rejects an inference suggested by the situation, often before giving the real point; (2) softly denies an assumed feeling or state to clarify the speaker's actual position.
  126. わけにはいかないNeutralExpresses that the speaker cannot do something because of social, moral, or situational reasons, not physical inability. (1) After a dictionary form: cannot do; (2) after a ない-form: must do, cannot avoid doing.
  127. わりにNeutralExpresses that a result is out of proportion to what one would expect from a given fact or degree: 'considering X, …' or 'for X, …'. It is used for results that are both better and worse than expected.
  128. をはじめ / をはじめとするWrittenCites X as the leading or most representative member of a larger group, then refers to the whole group: "X and others", "starting with X", "including X". (1) をはじめ(として) links to the rest of the sentence; (2) をはじめとする/をはじめとした modifies a following noun.
  129. を込めてNeutralExpresses doing something while putting a feeling, wish, or effort into it: 'with (all one's) ~', 'full of ~'. It typically follows nouns such as 感謝, 愛情, 心, 願い, or 力.
  130. を中心にNeutralCentering on, mainly in or among. It marks a noun as the center or main focus of an action or situation, leaving open that the activity may also extend beyond it.
  131. んだってCasualA casual sentence-ending. (1) Passes on information heard from someone else: "I heard that…"; (2) with rising intonation, asks the listener to confirm something heard: "Is it true that…?"; (3) in an insistent tone, repeats the speaker's own assertion: "I'm telling you…!"
  132. 一方だNeutralExpresses that a situation keeps changing in one direction without stopping, often a worsening trend: "keeps ~ing," "is only getting more ~."
  133. 一方でNeutralPresents two aspects of the same subject side by side: (1) contrasting aspects, 'while ~, on the other hand ~'; (2) an additional aspect, 'while ~, also ~'.
  134. 確かにNeutral(1) Certainly, indeed: affirms that something is true or agrees with what someone said; (2) It's true that…, but…: concedes a point before a contrasting statement introduced by が, けれど, しかし, etc.
  135. 気味NeutralIndicates that someone or something shows a slight sign or tendency of a certain state, usually an undesirable one. Similar to English 'a bit', 'a touch of', or '-ish'.
  136. 結果WrittenMeans 'as a result of ~' or 'after ~'. It presents an action or process in the first clause and the outcome that followed from it in the second clause.
  137. 向けNeutralAttached to a noun, 向け means 'intended for' or 'aimed at'. It shows who or what something is designed, made, or produced for: (1) a target audience or group; (2) a target market or destination.
  138. 最中にNeutralMeans 'right in the middle of' or 'at the height of' an ongoing action or event. The main clause usually describes something sudden or unexpected that happens at that moment and interrupts it.
  139. 際にFormalMeans "when," "at the time of," or "on the occasion of" something. It is a formal counterpart of とき, often used for procedures, rules, or notable occasions.
  140. 上でFormal(1) After doing X, and on that basis, do Y: X is a necessary step before Y; (2) with the dictionary form, 'in doing X' or 'for the purpose of X', often before statements about what is important or necessary.
  141. 切れないNeutralExpresses that one cannot do something completely or through to the end: (1) unable to finish because the amount is too large; (2) unable to fully hold back or endure something, as in 待ちきれない.
  142. 代わりにNeutral(1) Instead of or in place of someone or something, with one person, thing, or action substituting for another; (2) in exchange for or in return for, where one thing is balanced or compensated by another.
  143. 中NeutralA suffix attached to nouns. (1) Read じゅう, it means 'throughout' or 'all over' a time span or place; (2) read ちゅう, it means 'in the middle of' an activity or state; (3) after period nouns, especially with に, it means 'within' or 'by the end of' that period.
  144. 直すNeutralAttached to a verb stem, 直す means to do something over again. It expresses (1) redoing an action because the first attempt had a mistake; (2) revising something to improve it; (3) simply doing it again, as in 読み直す (reread), with no flaw implied.
  145. 途中に / 途中でNeutral(1) In the middle of an activity or event, after it has started but before it is finished; (2) on the way to a destination, at some point during the trip.

N2

  1. 〜から見ればNeutral(1) From the viewpoint of X: introduces the person, group, or perspective whose view frames the evaluation in the main clause; (2) Judging from X: introduces observable evidence or circumstances, such as someone's attitude or a situation, on which the speaker bases a judgment.
  2. 〜てさえいればNeutral"As long as (one) is/does ~", "if only ~". It marks a continuing state or action as the one condition needed for the result in the main clause, implying nothing else matters.
  3. 〜としてのNeutralAttributive form of として, meaning "as (a) ~" or "in the capacity of ~." It links a role, status or identity to a following noun, describing something that belongs to or comes with that role (e.g. position, responsibility, pride).
  4. 〜なくもないNeutralA double negative ('it is not that … not') that gives a weak, hedged affirmation: (1) reluctant or partial willingness or agreement; (2) a possibility that cannot be completely ruled out.
  5. 〜につけ〜につけWrittenWhether A or B: pairs two contrasting or related items to say that the same thing holds, or the same result follows, in either case.
  6. 〜につけてもWritten(1) Whenever one sees, hears, or thinks of something, a feeling or memory naturally comes to mind; (2) in the set phrases 何事につけても / 何かにつけても, 'in everything' or 'at every opportunity'.
  7. 〜に向けてNeutralExpresses directing effort or preparation toward a goal or upcoming event: 'toward', 'in preparation for', 'with ... in view'. (1) working toward a goal or event; (2) aimed at a target or audience; (3) with verbs of departure, the destination one sets out for.
  8. 〜に先立ってWrittenMeans 'prior to' or 'in advance of' an event or action. It introduces something done or held beforehand, often as preparation for a significant or formal occasion.
  9. 〜ば〜ほどNeutralExpresses proportional correlation: 'the more X, the more (or less) Y'. As the degree of the first condition increases, the result changes accordingly.
  10. 〜わりにはNeutralExpresses that a result differs from what you would normally expect given the degree or nature of something: 'considering ~', 'for ~'. The outcome can be better or worse than expected.
  11. 〜次第ではNeutralMeans 'depending on X' and highlights one particular outcome, often serious or unwelcome, that could result from how X turns out. The main clause usually expresses possibility.
  12. あげくNeutralSays that something finally happened after a long, trying, or troublesome process: (1) the end result, often disappointing or undesirable; (2) after much worrying or agonizing, the decision or action someone finally took.
  13. あるいはWrittenA formal conjunction meaning 'or' that presents alternatives between nouns, phrases, or clauses. (1) or, offering a choice between options; (2) or, presenting alternative possibilities; (3) perhaps, possibly, used adverbially with a conjectural ending.
  14. いきなりNeutralAn adverb meaning 'suddenly, abruptly, without warning'. It describes an action or event that happens all at once, with no lead-up or preparation, and often implies surprise.
  15. いよいよNeutral(1) At last, finally: marks that a long-anticipated moment or event has arrived or is about to arrive; (2) More and more, increasingly: shows that a state is intensifying.
  16. いわゆるNeutralPlaced before a noun to mark it as the label people commonly use, like English 'so-called' or 'what is known as'. It introduces a familiar term or expression rather than the speaker's own wording.
  17. おまけにCasualおまけに adds another point that reinforces what has just been said: “on top of that” or “what’s more.” It often adds another unwelcome circumstance, giving the sense “to make matters worse.”
  18. かえってNeutralかえって means “on the contrary” or “instead” when an action or situation produces a result opposite to what was expected, often an unwelcome one.
  19. かと思ったら / かと思うとNeutralExpresses that a second event happened immediately after the first, often unexpectedly or in contrast to it: 'no sooner had … than …', 'just when (I noticed) …, …'. The speaker describes a sudden change they observed.
  20. かねないNeutralExpresses the speaker's concern that something undesirable could happen, often as the result of a current situation or action: "could well ~", "there is a risk that ~".
  21. かねるFormal(1) Cannot do something, though one might wish to, because of one's position or circumstances; often a polite, indirect refusal in business and customer service. (2) Find it hard to bring oneself to do something; to hesitate or struggle over it (e.g. 決めかねる 'unable to decide').
  22. からこそNeutralEmphasizes a reason as the key or decisive one: 'precisely because ~.' (1) Singles out a reason as the one that truly matters; (2) justifies an action or situation by a reason the listener may not expect.
  23. からしてNeutral(1) Judging from X: cites a noun as the evidence for a conclusion or inference; (2) Starting with X, even X: gives one typical example to suggest that everything else is the same, usually with a critical tone.
  24. からすると / からすればNeutral(1) Judging from X: marks the evidence or basis for the speaker's judgment or guess; (2) from the standpoint of X: presents how things look from a particular person's or group's position.
  25. からといってNeutral"Just because X, it doesn't follow that Y." It rejects a conclusion that might seem to follow from a reason: (1) denying an assumed consequence; (2) partially negating a generalization; (3) introducing a prohibition or negative judgment.
  26. からにはNeutral"Since / now that X (is the case)": given a decision, commitment, or situation X, the speaker concludes that Y naturally follows. Y is typically an obligation, resolve, request, or strong judgment.
  27. から見るとNeutralJudging from / from the viewpoint of: (1) marks evidence the speaker uses to draw a conclusion; (2) marks the standpoint or perspective from which something is evaluated.
  28. から言うとNeutralJudging from X, or speaking from the standpoint of X. It introduces the viewpoint, position, or criterion that a judgment or opinion is based on.
  29. くせしてCasualMeans "even though (someone) is/does X, and yet...". The speaker criticizes, blames, or looks down on someone whose behavior doesn't fit a known fact or their status. It is a colloquial variant of くせに.
  30. げWrittenAttached to adjective stems, some nouns and the たい form, げ means that someone or something looks or seems a certain way, judging from appearance, expression or manner: (1) seeming (happy, uneasy, promising, etc.); (2) with たい, looking as if one wants to do something.
  31. ことからWrittenMeans "from the fact that" or "because of the fact that." It presents an objective fact as grounds: (1) the origin of a name; (2) the basis for a judgment, decision, or outcome.
  32. ことだからNeutral“Knowing X,” “since it's X we're talking about.” The speaker bases a judgment or guess on the known character or habits of a person or group, then states what they expect.
  33. ことなくWrittenMeans "without doing V" or "without V happening." The main action continues or finishes while the stated action or event never occurs, often something that might have been expected.
  34. ことにWrittenAttached to a word expressing emotion or evaluation, it introduces a fact by first stating how the speaker feels about it: "to my surprise…", "unfortunately…", "what is ~ is that…".
  35. ことにはならないNeutralDenies that a conclusion follows from a stated premise: "that does not mean…" or "it does not follow that…". It is typically paired with a premise clause such as からといって.
  36. ざるを得ないWrittenExpresses that the speaker has no choice but to do something, usually reluctantly, because circumstances, obligations, or pressure from others leave no alternative. Close to 'cannot help but' or 'have no choice but to'.
  37. しかもNeutralA conjunction meaning 'moreover' or 'what's more'. (1) It adds a further fact that reinforces what was just said; (2) it can also mean 'and yet' or 'even so', introducing something that happens despite the preceding fact.
  38. ずに済むNeutralExpresses that one gets by without having to do something that would otherwise have been necessary or unpleasant, often because of favorable circumstances or preparation. It carries a nuance of relief.
  39. せいかNeutralMarks a possible but uncertain cause, like "perhaps because of" or "maybe due to." The speaker guesses at the reason for a result, which is usually undesirable or neutral.
  40. せめてNeutral"At least"; "if nothing else." When the full or ideal outcome is out of reach, the speaker scales down to a minimum and wishes for, asks for, or settles on that much.
  41. そうするとNeutralA sentence-initial conjunction. (1) "When (I) did that": it links an action to what happened or was discovered as a result. (2) "In that case / that would mean": it draws a conclusion from what was just said.
  42. その上NeutralA conjunction meaning 'moreover', 'besides', or 'on top of that'. It adds another fact or quality to what was just said, usually one that points the same way and strengthens the overall point.
  43. それなのにNeutralA conjunction meaning 'and yet' or 'despite that'. It introduces an outcome that goes against what the previous sentence led you to expect, and it usually carries the speaker's surprise, disappointment or dissatisfaction.
  44. それならNeutralA conjunction meaning 'in that case' or 'if so'. It takes up what someone has just said, or a situation the speaker has just learned about, and introduces a suggestion, advice, intention or judgment based on it.
  45. それにしてもNeutral(1) Even allowing for what was just said, the speaker still feels something is excessive or surprising; (2) a sentence opener that shifts to, or returns to, a matter the speaker is struck by, often with an exclamatory tone.
  46. だけあってNeutralExpresses that a result or quality is just what one would expect given a certain fact, such as status, experience, effort or reputation. It is usually used to praise: 'as might be expected of…', 'befitting…', 'no wonder, since…'.
  47. だけにNeutralExpresses that because of X, a result or feeling Y is natural or all the greater. (1) Because of X, Y follows as one would expect; (2) because of X, the impact (often disappointment or shock) is all the greater.
  48. だけのことはあるNeutralExpresses that something lives up to expectations. A quality or result is fully worthy of someone's status, reputation, effort or cost, like 'as you would expect of…' or '…really paid off'. It is used to give positive evaluation or admiration.
  49. だけはNeutralUsed with a repeated verb to say that one will at least do something, or do as much as one can, regardless of the result: (1) do as much as one can; (2) at least do X, whatever comes of it.
  50. だけましだNeutralAcknowledges one redeeming point in an otherwise unsatisfactory situation: 'at least ~, so it could be worse.' The speaker accepts a bad situation by focusing on the part that is less bad.
  51. だってCasualA sentence-initial conjunction meaning "but" or "because". The speaker uses it to justify themselves or give an excuse, typically in reply to a question, criticism, or complaint.
  52. だの〜だのCasualLists examples of things, actions, or statements, often with a dismissive or exasperated tone. In these examples, it reports complaints and excuses: “X, Y, and so on.”
  53. たまえCasualA command form meaning "do ~." A superior uses it to tell a junior or subordinate what to do. It sounds authoritative, masculine and somewhat old-fashioned.
  54. たら〜たでCasualUsed when the same verb or adjective is repeated: 'if/when X happens, that situation brings its own (often different) issue.' (1) X brings a new problem or downside; (2) X would be acceptable, and one can deal with it.
  55. つ〜つWrittenExpresses two opposing or paired actions alternating back and forth repeatedly, as in 'going back and forth' or 'rising and sinking'. It is a literary pattern found mostly in set expressions.
  56. っこないCasualExpresses the speaker's strong conviction that something is impossible or will never happen: "there's no way ~", "~ can't possibly ~". (1) Denies that someone can do something, often with potential verbs; (2) denies that something will happen or that someone would do something.
  57. つつWrittenAttached to a verb, つつ links two actions by the same subject. (1) Two actions happen at the same time: "while doing"; (2) it shows contrast: "although/despite doing", often with verbs like 知る or 思う.
  58. つつあるWrittenIndicates that a change or process is currently underway and gradually progressing toward completion: "is in the process of ~ing," "is gradually ~ing." It is typically used with verbs expressing change.
  59. であれ〜であれWrittenWhether it is X or Y; be it X or Y. (1) Two contrasting alternatives are paired to say the main-clause conclusion holds either way; (2) representative members of a group are listed to say the statement applies to anyone or anything in that group.
  60. ていてはNeutralIf someone keeps doing something or stays in a certain state, an undesirable result will follow. It is used to warn or criticize, implying the situation should change.
  61. てからでないとNeutralExpresses that a certain action must be done first. Unless or until it is completed, the following situation cannot happen or is difficult. The second clause is typically negative or expresses impossibility.
  62. てこそNeutralExpresses that only by doing X can a result or value Y truly be achieved or understood. It is often translated as "only when/if you do X…" or "it is precisely by doing X that…" and stresses X as the essential condition.
  63. でしかないNeutralRestricts something to X and nothing more: (1) it presents someone or something as holding only a limited, often modest status; (2) it reduces something that may seem significant to a plain category, stripping away any larger importance.
  64. てたまらないNeutralExpresses that a feeling, sensation, or desire is so intense the speaker can hardly bear or hold it back: 'unbearably', 'terribly', 'can't help feeling'. It attaches to words describing emotions, physical sensations, or wants.
  65. てでもNeutralExpresses strong determination: someone is willing to resort to an extreme, costly, or undesirable means to achieve a goal. It translates as “even if it means doing ~” or “even by doing ~.”
  66. てならないWrittenExpresses a feeling or thought so strong that the speaker cannot suppress it: "can't help feeling …", "terribly …". (1) An emotion or concern is overwhelmingly intense; (2) with spontaneous verbs such as 思われる, a thought keeps arising on its own.
  67. てはNeutral(1) Presents a condition that leads to an undesirable or problematic result: 'if (you do) X, (something bad happens)'. (2) With verbs, describes two actions alternating in a repeated cycle ('do X, then Y, over and over'). This sense does not imply a negative result.
  68. てはいられないNeutralExpresses that, given the circumstances, the speaker cannot afford to go on doing something or stay in a certain state any longer. It often conveys urgency or a feeling that one must act.
  69. てばかりはいられないNeutralExpresses that one cannot afford to keep doing only one thing, because circumstances require moving on or taking other action. Often used as a self-admonition.
  70. てはならないWrittenExpresses a strong prohibition, 'must not': (1) bans an action on the basis of rules or regulations; (2) states a moral principle or general admonition about what one must never do.
  71. てまでNeutralExpresses going so far as to take an extreme, costly, or undesirable step to achieve something. It is often followed by the speaker's judgment that the goal is not worth such a step, or by surprise at someone's lengths.
  72. てみせるNeutral(1) To do something in front of someone so they can see it, e.g. to show how it is done; (2) to declare firm determination to achieve something and prove it to others: "I'll definitely do it, just watch."
  73. て以来WrittenMeans 'ever since (doing)'. It marks a past action or event as a starting point, and the main clause describes a state, change, or situation that has held from then on, usually up to the present, or up to a later endpoint given with まで.
  74. て当然だNeutralExpresses that a result or situation is natural, expected, or only to be expected given the circumstances: "it's only natural that…", "no wonder…". It can also mark something as the obvious right or deserved thing.
  75. というかCasualUsed to rephrase what one has just said with a more accurate or fitting expression, like "or rather" or "I mean." (1) Corrects, refines, or intensifies a description mid-sentence; (2) at the start of a sentence, marks a shift or correction in the conversation.
  76. ということはNeutralA connective that draws a conclusion or implication from what was just stated, like English "that means…" or "so…". It can stand at the start of a sentence or follow a clause, and the conclusion often ends with ということだ, に違いない or はずだ.
  77. というふうにNeutralDescribes the way something is done by giving concrete examples of the pattern: 'in such a way that ~', 'like ~'. (1) It sums up listed examples as a pattern of action; (2) it can loosely give the content or manner of what someone says or thinks.
  78. というものだNeutralUsed to state the speaker's firm judgment about what something truly is. (1) It defines the essence of something: "that is what X really is." (2) It gives a critical assessment: "that is nothing but X" or "that is simply X."
  79. というものではないNeutralRejects a commonly held idea or assumption as not necessarily true: "it doesn't follow that…" or "it isn't the case that…". It is a partial negation that challenges a generalization rather than flatly denying a fact, and it often follows からといって or 必ずしも.
  80. というものでもないNeutralRejects a common assumption, rule of thumb, or hasty inference: "it's not necessarily the case that…" or "it doesn't follow that…". It is a partial negation. The speaker says the idea does not automatically hold, rather than calling it flatly false.
  81. といったNeutral(1) Means "such as" or "like": gives one or more representative examples before a noun naming the group they belong to. (2) Connects quoted or described content to a noun such as 意見, 声 or 問題, presenting it as typical of what that noun contains ("opinions like…").
  82. どうせCasual(1) “Anyway”: presents an expected outcome, often an unfavorable one, with resignation; (2) with なら or のだから, “if/since … anyway”: treats that outcome as a premise for a conclusion.
  83. どうやらNeutral(1) Apparently; introduces a conclusion inferred from signs or evidence. (2) Somehow; indicates that something was managed despite difficulty.
  84. ところからWrittenGives the basis or origin of something: (1) the fact a name or designation comes from; (2) the circumstance that led to a later result or development. Roughly 'from the fact that…' or 'because…'.
  85. ところだったNeutral(1) Something, usually undesirable, very nearly happened but did not: "almost ~" or "nearly ~", often with もう少しで or 危うく; (2) without such cues, it can simply mean "was just about to ~" at a past moment.
  86. どころではないNeutralExpresses that circumstances, such as being busy or facing a pressing problem, leave no room for X; it is not the time or situation for X. X is often something enjoyable or relaxing.
  87. ところに / ところへNeutralMarks the point when the subject is (1) just about to do, (2) in the middle of doing, or (3) has just done something, and another event comes in and affects or interrupts that situation. The event is often unwelcome, though it can also be timely.
  88. ところをNeutral(1) Acknowledges someone’s circumstances in a polite expression of thanks or apology; (2) marks the moment or situation in which someone is affected by a subsequent action.
  89. ところを見るとNeutralJudging from ~ / seeing that ~. The speaker presents something they have observed as evidence and draws an inference or guess from it.
  90. としてはNeutral(1) For a (noun): judges something against the standard typical of its category, often noting that it is unusual or stands out; (2) As far as (a person or group) is concerned: introduces the standpoint from which an opinion or position is stated.
  91. としてもNeutralEven if; even supposing. Marks a hypothetical or conceded premise and says the main clause still holds. The premise is often a future event or an assumed state, and it is frequently introduced by たとえ or 仮に.
  92. とっくにCasualAn adverb meaning 'long ago' or 'well before now/then'. It stresses that an action or change was completed much earlier than a reference point, often implying that someone is late or behind. The reference point is usually now or a past moment, but it can also be a future one.
  93. ともWrittenEven if / no matter (how, what, who) …; a formal concessive stating that however the condition turns out, the result or resolve stays the same: (1) with a hypothetical condition, often with たとえ; (2) with a question word, meaning no matter who, what or how.
  94. と考えられるWrittenIt is thought that…; it can be considered that…. Presents a judgment or inference as objective and reasoned rather than as a personal opinion. It is typical of reports, news, and academic writing.
  95. と同時にNeutral(1) Two events occur at the same moment or in immediate succession: “as soon as”; (2) two qualities or roles coexist: “while also being.”
  96. ないではいられないNeutralExpresses that one cannot help doing something, because a strong feeling or urge makes holding back impossible. (1) an involuntary reaction to emotion; (2) giving in to an urge despite trying to resist.
  97. なおWrittenA sentence-initial conjunction meaning 'please note that,' 'in addition,' or 'incidentally.' After the main point is stated, it adds a supplementary remark, detail, caution, or supporting note.
  98. なくはないNeutralA double negative (“it's not that not X”) that gives a weak, hedged affirmation. It can express (1) reluctant or partial willingness or feeling; (2) a concession that a quality holds to some degree. It is often followed by a けど or が clause stating the speaker's real point.
  99. なしにNeutralMeans 'without N'. Attached to a noun, it marks something as missing or not done. It is often followed by a negative or impossibility expression to say that the result cannot happen without that thing.
  100. にあたってFormalMarks an important, often formal occasion or undertaking and what one does at its start or in preparation for it: 'on the occasion of', 'when (about to) do'. (1) Remarks made at the opening of an event; (2) preparations made before starting something significant.
  101. にあたりFormalMeans 'on the occasion of' or 'at the outset of' an important event or undertaking. When facing a significant moment such as an opening, a new year, or a new project, the speaker does something fitting, such as greeting the audience, stating intentions, or preparing.
  102. にかかわらずWrittenRegardless of; irrespective of. It states that something applies whether a factor varies across a range or between alternatives.
  103. にかこつけてNeutralUsing X as a pretext or excuse to do (or avoid) something, where X is not the real reason. It usually carries a critical or ironic tone toward the person's motives.
  104. にしたらNeutralFrom the standpoint of (someone). The speaker considers how a particular person or group feels or sees things, usually another party but sometimes the speaker (私にしたら). It is often paired with a guess such as だろう or に違いない, though plain statements are also natural.
  105. にしてもNeutralConcessive "even if / even granting that." (1) Accepts a fact, then gives the speaker's contrary view; (2) supposes a case, then says the conclusion still holds; (3) in "AにしてもBにしても," means "whether A or B."
  106. にしろ / にせよWritten(1) Even if X, even granting X; the main clause holds regardless. (2) In the paired form X にしろ Y にしろ: whether X or Y. (3) With question words (何にせよ, いずれにせよ): no matter what, in any case.
  107. につきFormal(1) Because of / due to: a stiff, formal way to state a reason, typical of notices and announcements; (2) per / for each: states a rate or amount allotted to each unit.
  108. につけWritten"Whenever / every time one does V": each time the action of the preceding verb (typically 見る, 聞く, 思う or 考える) takes place, a feeling, thought or memory naturally follows. In the fixed expressions 何かにつけ(て) and 何事につけ it means "at every opportunity, in every matter".
  109. にてFormalA formal particle corresponding to で. It marks (1) where an event or action takes place, or a point in time; (2) the means or channel used; or (3) a reason.
  110. にほかならないWrittenAsserts emphatically that something is exactly what is stated and nothing else: (1) 'X is none other than Y / X is nothing less than Y'; (2) after から or ため, 'it is precisely because of… / precisely for the sake of…', singling out the one true reason or purpose.
  111. にもかかわらずWrittenにもかかわらず means “despite” or “even though”: it introduces a fact that makes the outcome unexpected. Sentence-initial それにもかかわらず means “nevertheless” and refers back to an earlier statement.
  112. にわたってWrittenExpresses that something extends over an entire period, range, or area, often one felt to be long or wide: (1) throughout or over a span of time or number of occurrences; (2) across a range or area of space or scope.
  113. に越したことはないNeutralExpresses that doing or having something is the best or safest choice: "nothing beats X," "it's best to X." It often implies that X is desirable or advisable but not strictly essential.
  114. に沿ってNeutral(1) Along something that extends in a line or has a long edge, such as a river, road, coastline, or wall; (2) in line with or in accordance with a plan, policy, guideline, or someone's wishes.
  115. に応えてNeutralMeans 'in response to' someone's expectations, wishes, or support, acting to meet or live up to them: (1) to live up to others' expectations or encouragement; (2) to meet a request or demand by taking action.
  116. に応じてNeutral(1) In accordance with / depending on: something is adjusted or varies to suit a changing factor such as number, amount, ability or situation; (2) in response to: acting to meet a request, demand or invitation (e.g. 依頼に応じて).
  117. に過ぎないWrittenExpresses that something is merely X and nothing more. (1) It limits or plays down the nature, status, or importance of something, whether dismissively or as a modest hedge; (2) it stresses that a number, amount, or degree is small.
  118. に関わるWritten(1) To affect or have a serious bearing on something important, such as life or the future; (2) more neutrally, to be involved in, or to relate to, an activity or matter.
  119. に基づいてWrittenMeans 'based on' or 'on the basis of'. It marks what serves as the grounds or basis for an action, decision or judgment: (1) data, facts or research from which something is made or decided; (2) a rule, law or principle that an action follows.
  120. に決まっているCasualExpresses the speaker's firm conviction that something is certainly so: (1) a confident prediction, 'is bound to', 'is sure to'; (2) an assertion that something is self-evident, 'of course', 'obviously'.
  121. に限ってNeutral(1) Precisely on this occasion, of all times, something unwelcome or contrary to the usual happens; (2) X, of all people, would surely never do such a thing, expressing strong trust.
  122. に限らずNeutralMeans "not limited to X" or "not just X." It says that what is true of X is also true of a wider range of things or people.
  123. に限るNeutral(1) Expresses the speaker's personal conviction that something is the best choice in a given situation: 'X is best,' 'nothing beats X'; (2) in notices and rules, restricts something to a certain group or condition: 'limited to X.'
  124. に向かってNeutral(1) Facing or moving toward a physical direction, place, or object; (2) working toward a goal or target; (3) directed at a person, either moving toward them or directly addressing them.
  125. に際してFormalOn the occasion of; at the time of. Marks an event, procedure, or undertaking as the occasion for a formal action such as a greeting, thanks, announcement, or notice.
  126. に先立ちWrittenPrior to / in advance of. Marks a significant event, and the main clause describes an action done beforehand, typically preparation or a preliminary step such as setting up or giving instructions.
  127. に相違ないWrittenExpresses the speaker's strong conviction that something is certainly true, based on some grounds; 'must be', 'there is no doubt that'. It is a formal, written-style equivalent of に違いない.
  128. に伴ってWrittenLinks two changes or events that go together: (1) as X changes or develops, Y changes along with it; (2) Y happens, or is carried out, as an accompaniment to or consequence of an event X.
  129. に反してWrittenExpresses that an outcome goes against something: (1) contrary to an expectation, prediction or wish; (2) against or in violation of a rule, law or someone's will.
  130. ねばならないWrittenExpresses obligation or necessity: something must be done, whether because of duty, principle, or circumstances. It is a formal, literary equivalent of なければならない.
  131. のみかWrittenMeans 'not only X, but also Y.' It adds a further, often more striking, fact to the first one. It is a formal, literary equivalent of ばかりか.
  132. のみならずWrittenNot only X but also Y: a formal expression that extends a statement about X to Y. It can also introduce a further point after a preceding statement.
  133. のもとでWrittenMeans "under" someone's guidance, supervision, or protection, or "under" certain conditions or support. It marks the authority, influence, or circumstances under which an action takes place: (1) under a person's guidance or supervision; (2) under given conditions or with someone's support.
  134. のももっともだNeutralExpresses that a feeling, reaction, or state is perfectly understandable given the circumstances: "it's only natural that…" or "no wonder…". (1) Someone's reaction or feeling is reasonable; (2) a resulting state or condition is to be expected.
  135. ばかりだNeutralExpresses that a situation keeps changing in one direction with no sign of stopping or reversing, usually for the worse: 'just keeps getting (worse)', 'does nothing but (decline)'. It can occasionally describe a continuing positive change.
  136. ばかりにWrittenExpresses that one cause, often minor, led to a bad or regrettable result: 'just because', 'simply because'. (1) A single action caused an unfortunate result; (2) a quality or state, even a good one, brings a bad outcome; (3) with 〜たいばかりに, 'out of a strong desire to…', explaining why someone went to great lengths.
  137. はともかくNeutralMeans 'setting X aside' or 'X aside'. The speaker puts one matter aside, either because it is debatable or less important for now, and turns to the point they want to make: (1) X may be questionable, but Y holds; (2) leave X for later and deal with Y first.
  138. はもとよりWritten"Not only X (which goes without saying), but also Y." It presents X as the obvious or expected case and adds Y as a further, often broader or less expected, case.
  139. ふうにNeutralExpresses the manner or way in which something is done: (1) 'in this/that way, like this/that', most often after こんな/そんな/あんな; (2) 'in what way, how', with どんなふうに asking about manner or method.
  140. べきだNeutralExpresses what someone should or ought to do based on moral judgment, common sense, or duty. (1) What is right or proper to do; (2) advice or a recommendation stated as the speaker's opinion.
  141. まいWrittenA literary negative auxiliary with two senses: (1) the speaker's firm resolve not to do something ('will not, determined not to'); (2) negative conjecture ('probably not, surely not'), a formal equivalent of ないだろう.
  142. ままにNeutral(1) Doing something as another person tells or urges you to, often with a sense of passive compliance; (2) acting as your feelings or impulses lead you.
  143. むしろNeutralAn adverb meaning "rather" or "if anything." It marks B as the more accurate description, the better choice, or the actual (often unexpected) outcome compared with A: (1) B describes things better; (2) B is preferable; (3) if anything, the result leans the opposite way.
  144. もう少しでNeutral(1) Almost or nearly: something came close to happening but did not; (2) soon: an event or state is only a little time away.
  145. もかまわずNeutralDoing something without caring about what one would normally be expected to consider: (1) other people's eyes, one's appearance, or one's surroundings; (2) others' warnings, objections, or actions, which the subject carries on in spite of.
  146. もっともNeutralA sentence-initial conjunction meaning 'though' or 'mind you'. After a statement, it adds a qualification, condition, or exception that partly limits what was just said.
  147. ものCasualA sentence-final particle that gives a reason, often as an excuse or justification: (1) justifying one's own behavior or situation; (2) backing up a statement one has just made. It is colloquial and somewhat emotional, like "after all" or "because, you see."
  148. ものかCasual(1) Expresses a forceful refusal to do something; (2) emphatically denies that something is or could be true. The final か is rhetorical, not a request for an answer.
  149. ものがあるNeutralExpresses the speaker's impression that something has a certain quality or evokes a certain feeling: 'there is something ~ about it', 'it is rather ~'. It softly asserts a subjective evaluation, often an emotional or impressionistic one.
  150. ものだNeutral(1) With a past-tense verb, it recalls something that used to happen habitually, often with nostalgia; (2) it states a general truth or natural tendency, often with emotion or exclamation; (3) it states what one naturally should do by common sense or social norms.
  151. ものだからCasualBecause; the thing is that. It gives a reason in an explanatory, often excusing tone. The speaker uses it to justify a situation or their own action, usually one that was unavoidable or unintended.
  152. ものではないNeutral(1) Admonishes by appealing to a social or moral norm: one should not do something, as a matter of common sense; (2) Denies that something is naturally or readily so: by its nature, it is not the kind of thing that happens or can be done (in the way stated).
  153. ものならNeutral(1) Attached to a potential verb: 'if it were possible to ~', expressing a wish for something the speaker thinks is unlikely or impossible; (2) attached to a volitional form: 'if one were to (dare) ~', warning that a bad consequence would follow.
  154. もののWrittenAlthough; even though. ものの acknowledges a fact or action, then introduces a result that differs from what might be expected.
  155. やがてWritten(1) Before long, eventually: after some time passes, a new event or state comes about, whether the wait is short or long; (2) Nearly, almost: used with a length of time that is about to be reached (e.g., やがて十年になる).
  156. ようがない / ようもないNeutral(1) States that there is no way or means to do something, so it is impossible given the circumstances; (2) in the noun-modifying form ようのない, describes something that cannot be put into words or dealt with. ようもない is a slightly more emphatic variant.
  157. ようではNeutralIf something is like this, then (a bad result follows). The speaker judges a present state or behavior and warns or criticizes that, at this level, a desired outcome cannot be achieved.
  158. ようではないかFormalA strong, rhetorical call to action, "let us ~!" The speaker urges a group, including themselves, to do something together. It is typical of speeches and addresses.
  159. よりほかないWrittenExpresses that there is no alternative but to do something: "have no choice but to ~" or "can only ~". It is used when every other option has been ruled out.
  160. わずかにNeutralAn adverb stressing that something is very small. (1) In degree, it means 'slightly' or 'faintly'; (2) in amount, it means 'only' or 'a mere', often together with しか〜ない.
  161. をきっかけにNeutralTaking X as the trigger or starting point: some event, experience, or encounter X prompts a new action, change, or development described in the main clause. It corresponds to English 'prompted by X', 'X was what led to…', or 'with X as the turning point'.
  162. をめぐってWrittenMeans "over," "concerning," or "surrounding" an issue that is a focus of activity. (1) Most often it marks the issue that debate, dispute, or negotiation among several parties revolves around. (2) It can also mark an incident or matter that is the focus of investigation, speculation, or attention.
  163. をもとにNeutralBased on; using something as the source, material, or starting point. It marks the basis from which something is created, developed, or decided: (1) source material for a work; (2) information used as a basis for action.
  164. を契機にWrittenMarks an event as the opportunity or turning point for a new development: "taking X as an opportunity", "with X as a turning point". The main clause describes a change or new action that follows from or starts at X.
  165. を除いてWrittenMeans 'except (for)' or 'excluding'. It marks something as left out of a group or statement, and what follows applies to everything else. (1) excluding a member from a group; (2) setting aside one point so the rest of the statement holds.
  166. を通じて / を通してNeutral(1) Through, via: marks the means, medium, or intermediary by which something is done or obtained; (2) throughout: indicates that something continues over an entire period or scope.
  167. を問わずWrittenMeans "regardless of," "irrespective of," or "without regard to." It states that differences within a category, such as age, gender, weather, or experience, do not matter to what follows.
  168. 以上にNeutralExpresses that something goes beyond a standard or point of comparison: (1) to a greater degree than X, more than X; (2) more than being X, even more so Y. Sense (2) presents a second quality as more notable than the first.
  169. 以上はNeutralExpresses what follows from an established fact, commitment, or status: (1) having made a commitment, one must follow through; (2) given a role or status, one should act accordingly.
  170. 果たしてWrittenAn adverb with two senses: (1) in questions, it casts doubt on whether something is really so: 'I wonder if it's really…'; (2) in statements, it confirms that something turned out as expected: 'sure enough, just as expected.'
  171. 逆にNeutralConversely; on the contrary. (1) Introduces the opposite case or condition to the one just stated; (2) introduces an effect or view that runs opposite to what was said or expected.
  172. 恐れがあるWrittenExpresses that there is a risk or danger that something undesirable may happen. It is used for negative outcomes, often in warnings, news and official announcements.
  173. 限りNeutral(1) 'As long as' or 'while': the main clause holds for as long as the condition continues; (2) with ない限り, 'unless': the result holds unless the condition occurs; (3) 'as far as' or 'to the limit of' (私の知る限り, できる限り).
  174. 次第Neutral(1) After a verb stem, 次第 means “as soon as” and introduces an action to follow; (2) after a noun, it means “depends on” that factor.
  175. 次第だ / 次第でNeutralIndicates what an outcome or decision hinges on: (1) as a predicate, N次第だ/N次第です means "it depends on N"; (2) as a connective, N次第で means "depending on N, …" and introduces a result that varies with N.
  176. 手前NeutralExpresses that concern for one's face or appearance restricts what one can do: (1) with a person, 'in front of / out of regard for how it looks to' someone; (2) with a past action or statement, 'having said or done X,' so one cannot now back down.
  177. 上WrittenAttached to a noun, it means "from the standpoint of X" or "in terms of X": it frames a statement as true according to a certain field, rule, or aspect, as in legally, budget-wise, or historically.
  178. 上にNeutralAdds a further fact on top of one already stated, meaning 'on top of', 'besides' or 'not only… but also'. Both facts usually point the same way, either both good or both bad.
  179. 上はWrittenExpresses that because a situation holds or a decision has been made, a certain response naturally follows: (1) the speaker's own resolve or determination; (2) a duty or piece of advice about what one should do.
  180. 中をNeutral(1) Doing something, often moving, through a difficult physical condition such as bad weather: 'through ~, in ~'; (2) carrying on despite a difficult circumstance, especially in polite set phrases acknowledging someone's trouble (e.g., お忙しい中を).
  181. 直ちにFormalA formal adverb meaning "immediately, at once, without delay," stressing prompt action with no time lost. (1) immediately, at once; (2) directly, as a necessary consequence, mainly in partial-negation frames such as 直ちに〜とは言えない.
  182. 得ないWrittenAttached to a verb's ます-stem, expresses that something is impossible or cannot happen: "cannot possibly ~", "~ is unthinkable". It is the negative counterpart of 得る.
  183. 得るWrittenExpresses possibility or capability in formal, written-style language: (1) something can or could happen; (2) someone is able to carry out an action. It is a stiff, literary way of saying 'can' or 'could.'
  184. 抜きで / 抜きにしてNeutralWithout X; leaving out or dispensing with X, something that would normally be included or expected. It attaches to nouns and describes doing something with that element omitted.
  185. 抜くNeutralAttached to a verb stem, 抜く means (1) carrying an action through to the very end despite difficulty or hardship; (2) doing something thoroughly and completely.
  186. 反面NeutralPresents two contrasting aspects of the same person or thing: "while X, on the other hand Y." One side is often positive and the other negative, or vice versa.
  187. 末にWrittenAfter a long process, effort or series of events; 'in the end', 'after much …'. It marks the lengthy process that finally led to the outcome in the main clause.
  188. 要するにNeutralA conjunctive adverb meaning "in short" or "the point is." It reduces what came before to its essential point. Senses: (1) summing up the speaker's own explanation; (2) stating what someone else really means or intends.

N1

  1. 〜ないわけにはいかないNeutralExpresses that one cannot avoid doing something: given social expectations, common sense, or the circumstances, not doing it is not an acceptable option, so one must do it. Literally, 'there is no way I can not do ~'.
  2. 〜にあたるWritten(1) Expresses equivalence or correspondence: X amounts to or corresponds to Y; (2) in the connective forms にあたり／にあたって, it means 'on the occasion of' or 'when undertaking' a significant event or undertaking.
  3. 〜に鑑みてWrittenIn light of; in view of. It introduces a circumstance or past event taken into careful account when making a decision or taking action.
  4. 〜に至ってWritten'Only when things reached the point of X (did ...)': marks an extreme or critical stage that is finally reached, after which a belated action or realization occurs. Often implies it should have happened sooner.
  5. 〜に則してFormalIn accordance with; in conformity with. Indicates that an action is carried out following an established rule, law, regulation, or norm.
  6. 〜やら〜やらNeutral(1) Lists a few representative items or actions, suggesting there are more and that the situation is hectic or troublesome; (2) Describes mixed or conflicting feelings experienced at the same time.
  7. (で)すらWritten"Even": presents an extreme example to imply that the statement applies all the more to everything else. It often carries a sense of surprise or criticism.
  8. あくまでもNeutral(1) Persistently, to the very end, emphasizing an unyielding stance or action; (2) Strictly, purely, merely, stressing that something is nothing more than what is stated.
  9. あってのNeutralExpresses that B exists or works because A is there. A is indispensable to B, and B could not exist without A. It is used in the frame AあってのB, usually to acknowledge what something owes to A.
  10. あらかじめWrittenAn adverb meaning 'in advance' or 'beforehand'. (1) It marks an action done ahead of time in preparation; (2) in formal notices and requests, it asks the reader to understand or accept something ahead of time.
  11. いかなるWrittenA formal adnominal meaning "what kind of" or "any … whatsoever." It is (1) used with concessive endings for "no matter what N"; (2) used with も for "any/every N" (or "no N at all" with a negative); (3) used as a formal question word, "what kind of."
  12. いかにWrittenA formal adverb meaning (1) 'no matter how', used with ても/でも in concessive clauses; (2) 'how, in what way', used with か to ask or discuss method; (3) 'how (very)', used with か to stress degree.
  13. いかにもNeutral(1) Very much, every bit, just as one would expect: stresses how strongly someone or something matches a typical image or impression, usually paired with らしい, そうだ or ような; (2) as a reply, 'indeed' or 'quite so', affirming what the other person said.
  14. いかんでは / いかんによってはWrittenDepending on N (its state, content or outcome). The following clause names one particular possible result, often an unwelcome or drastic one.
  15. いかんによらずWrittenRegardless of how something turns out or what its state is. The preceding noun names something whose content or outcome can vary (weather, results, reasons), and the main clause states what stays the same no matter what.
  16. いずれにせよWritten(1) In any case / at any rate: sets aside preceding details or uncertainty and moves to the main point or conclusion; (2) either way: after alternatives are listed, it states a judgment that holds whichever one proves true.
  17. およそNeutral(1) Approximately, about: placed before a number or quantity to show it is an estimate; (2) Utterly, entirely: intensifies a negative or negative-meaning predicate (およそ～ない, およそ無駄).
  18. かたがたFormal'While also…', 'partly by way of…'. It marks one purpose of an action that also serves another purpose. It is used in polite greetings, visits and letters.
  19. かたわらWrittenIndicates that someone pursues a secondary activity alongside their main occupation or long-term activity: "while (mainly) doing A, also doing B on the side."
  20. かつてWrittenAn adverb placing an event or state in the past, usually contrasting it with the present: (1) once, formerly, at one time; (2) as かつての + noun, 'former'; (3) with a negative (かつてない), 'never before, unprecedented'.
  21. がてらNeutral"While doing X, also do Y" or "do Y, which doubles as X." It links two activities so that one outing or action serves two purposes at once.
  22. からあるWrittenAttaches to a number and counter to stress that a quantity is large, meaning 'as many as', 'no less than' or 'upwards of'. It conveys the speaker's sense that the amount is impressive.
  23. が最後WrittenOnce something happens, an unavoidable, usually undesirable result follows and the situation cannot be reversed. It stresses that the first action is the decisive point of no return.
  24. が早いかWrittenExpresses that a second action happens the instant the first one occurs or is completed: 'no sooner had A than B', 'the moment A, B'. It is a literary expression and typically narrates actual events that already happened.
  25. か否かWrittenMeans "whether or not." It turns a yes/no question into an embedded clause, usually the object or topic of verbs of deciding, checking or questioning. It is a formal, written equivalent of かどうか.
  26. きってのWrittenMeans 'the most ~ in X' or 'X's foremost ~'. It ranks something as the top example within a group, organization, place or era, and is typically used to praise.
  27. くらいならNeutral(1) Rather than do X: marks a course the speaker finds undesirable and presents a better alternative, often ending in ほうがいい or ほうがましだ; (2) with どうせ, 'if you are going to do X anyway': accepts X and recommends a better way of doing it.
  28. くらいのものだNeutralLimits something to a low or narrow degree: (1) 'no more than X, merely X'; (2) 'at about the level where even X,' stressing how slight or simple something is; (3) 'X is about the only one/thing that…', which can also highlight how exceptional X is.
  29. ぐるみNeutralAttached to a noun, it indicates that everything or everyone included in it is involved together. (1) The whole group (family, company, community) acting as one; (2) including something as it is, without removing it (e.g. 皮ぐるみ 'skin and all').
  30. ごとき / ごとくWrittenA literary way of saying “like” or “as.” (1) Compares one thing to another: ごとき before a noun (“a ~-like …”), ごとく before a verb or adjective (“as if ~,” “as … as ~”); (2) Noun + ごとき can humbly or dismissively mean “the likes of ~.”
  31. ことごとくWrittenAn adverb meaning 'every single one, without exception.' It stresses that all members of a group share the same outcome, most often a negative one such as failure or rejection.
  32. こととてWrittenBecause; since. こととて presents a circumstance as a reason, often to explain a mistake or inconvenience and ask for understanding.
  33. ことなしにWrittenFormal 'without doing X'. (1) Says that Y happens or is done without X taking place. (2) Most often, with a negative or impossibility main clause, says that Y cannot be achieved unless X is done.
  34. さぞNeutralAn adverb expressing the speaker's empathetic guess that someone's feelings or situation must be very intense: "surely," "must have been (very)." It pairs with a conjecture ending such as だろう or でしょう.
  35. さもWritten(1) “As if; as though,” emphasizing the impression someone’s behavior or speech creates, sometimes with a suggestion of pretense; (2) “very visibly,” emphasizing how strongly someone appears to feel with 〜そう.
  36. さもないとNeutral"Otherwise" or "or else": a conjunction that opens a new sentence after advice or a command. It states the undesirable result that will follow if the advice is not taken: (1) a warning of a bad outcome; (2) a threat or ultimatum.
  37. じみたNeutralAttached to a noun, it means "smacking of X" or "-ish": someone or something shows the qualities, air, or appearance of X. It is usually disapproving, suggesting the resemblance is unwelcome or out of place.
  38. ずくめNeutralAttached to a noun, ずくめ means "entirely X" or "nothing but X": (1) dressed or covered completely in one color; (2) filled with one kind of thing or event from start to finish.
  39. ずじまいNeutral(1) Something one intended, wanted, or had the chance to do ended up never being done; (2) something expected or anticipated ended up never happening. It looks back on a situation that is now over, often with regret or disappointment.
  40. そばからNeutralExpresses that B happens right after A, typically again and again. (1) Most often B immediately undoes or wastes A, conveying frustration; (2) it can also describe B keeping pace with A, including welcome results (焼くそばから売れる, 'they sell as fast as they are baked').
  41. たところでNeutralEven if (one does X), it will be pointless or will not bring the hoped-for result. (1) Even if X is done, the expected result will not follow; (2) even if X happens, the outcome amounts to very little.
  42. だにWrittenA literary particle meaning 'even'. (1) With a negative, it stresses that not even the minimum happens ('not even ~'); (2) after a verb such as 考える or 聞く, it means that merely doing that is enough to cause a strong feeling.
  43. ためしがないNeutralExpresses that something has never once happened, judging from the speaker's past experience. It often carries a critical or exasperated tone and serves as grounds for predicting that it won't happen this time either.
  44. たら最後 / たが最後NeutralOnce X happens, a usually undesirable result follows that is hard or impossible to avoid. The first action is presented as a trigger after which the situation slips out of one's control. The result need not be permanent.
  45. たりともWrittenEmphasizes a minimal quantity, 'not even one ~', stressing that absolutely none of something is allowed or possible. It is almost always followed by a negative or prohibitive expression.
  46. たるもの / たるWrittenExpresses the standards or duties expected of someone because of the role, status or category they belong to. (1) N たるもの / たる者: anyone who is an N (should…); (2) N₁ たる N₂: an N₂ who is an N₁, with emphasis on that status.
  47. た拍子にNeutral(1) "The moment / as a result of (doing) X": an action or movement triggers an unexpected, usually accidental outcome; (2) in the set phrase 何かの拍子に, "for some reason / by some chance".
  48. ってばCasualA casual sentence-final particle expressing impatience or insistence. The speaker presses a point the listener has not accepted or acted on, often one already stated, much like "I said…!" or "I told you…!"
  49. であれ / であろうとWrittenExpresses that the statement that follows holds regardless of what X is: (1) with a question word, "no matter who/what X is"; (2) with どんな + noun, "however X it may be"; (3) with a specific noun, "even if it is X."
  50. てかなわないCasualExpresses that a state is so intense, usually unpleasant or troublesome, that the speaker can hardly bear it: "unbearably ~" or "so ~ I can't stand it." It is mainly used to complain about situations that annoy or wear on the speaker.
  51. てからというものWrittenEver since (a certain event happened). It marks a past turning point after which a notable change or new state has continued up to now, often with strong feeling.
  52. てしかるべきだWrittenExpresses that an action or state is only proper, fitting, or naturally expected under the circumstances. The speaker judges that it ought to happen as a matter of course.
  53. でなくてなんだろうWrittenA rhetorical question meaning 'if this is not X, what else could it be?' The speaker emphatically asserts that something is truly X, often with strong emotion or admiration.
  54. ではあるまいかWrittenExpresses the speaker's cautious conjecture or suspicion that something is probably the case: 'Isn't it perhaps that…?', 'I suspect that…'. It is a literary equivalent of ではないだろうか and leans toward the affirmative despite its negative form.
  55. ではあるまいしCasual“It’s not as if X, so…” presents X as inapplicable and uses that premise to support a judgment, request, or explanation.
  56. てもどうにもならないNeutralEven if one does X, it will not change or improve the situation. It states that an action such as regretting, apologizing or worrying is useless, typically because the outcome is already fixed or it is too late.
  57. でも何でもないCasualEmphatically denies that someone or something is X or has a particular quality: “not X or anything of the sort.” It may be followed by a more ordinary description.
  58. ても差し支えないFormalExpresses that doing something, or something being a certain way, is acceptable or causes no problem. It is a formal way of giving or asking permission, often used in business and official contexts.
  59. とあってWrittenBecause of the special circumstance that ~; since it is ~. It presents a notable situation as the reason for what naturally follows, often an observed scene or public reaction.
  60. とあればWritten“If it is (for) X, then…”: presents a special circumstance or reason that justifies doing something one would not normally do, usually followed by a statement of willingness or determination.
  61. というか〜というかNeutralOffers two alternative descriptions of the same thing when neither alone quite fits: 'whether you call it A or B', 'A, or maybe B'. It usually leads into a summarizing conclusion, which may be tentative or quite emphatic.
  62. というところだ / といったところだNeutralGives a rough estimate or summary: 'about', 'roughly', 'more or less'. It often carries a light sense of 'that's about the size of it.' (1) An approximate figure or quantity; (2) a rough summary of a state or stage reached.
  63. というものWrittenAttached to a length of time, it emphasizes that throughout that whole period, which the speaker feels was long, a certain action or state continued without a break.
  64. というわけだNeutralPresents a statement as the logical conclusion of, or explanation for, what came before: (1) "so that means…/that's why…" when drawing a conclusion from stated facts; (2) "that's how it happened" when summing up an account of circumstances.
  65. というわけではないNeutralA partial negation that denies an assumption or inference: (1) "it's not that ~", rejecting one interpretation of the situation; (2) "it doesn't necessarily follow that ~", often with 必ず or いつも.
  66. といえどもWrittenEven though / even if X: it grants that X is true or assumed, then says the expected consequence does not follow. (1) Even a notable or exceptional X; (2) no matter how X, with どんなに／いかに／たとえ; (3) even a minimal amount (一日, 一円).
  67. といったらないNeutralExpresses that the degree of something is so extreme it cannot be put into words: "incredibly ~," "indescribably ~." It conveys the speaker's strong emotional reaction and can be used for both positive and negative qualities.
  68. ときたらCasualTopic marker that spotlights a person or thing the speaker feels strongly about. It is usually followed by exasperated criticism, roughly "as for X (ugh)…" or "don't get me started on X": (1) complaining about a person; (2) complaining about a familiar situation; (3) less commonly, setting up emphatic praise.
  69. ときているCasualPresents a trait or circumstance as a striking fact, usually as the reason for the speaker's judgment. It often stacks one more feature onto another, like "and on top of that, X is…"
  70. とされるWrittenPresents something as a generally accepted, official, or scholarly view rather than the speaker's own opinion: 'is considered / regarded as', 'is said / believed to'. Common in formal writing, reports, and explanations of facts or history.
  71. としたって / としたところでCasual(1) After a noun: "even X" or "X too", presenting X as no exception, often from X's own standpoint. (2) After a clause: "even if / even supposing …". としたところで usually implies that the supposed action would make no difference; としたって is the everyday equivalent of としても and carries no such implication by itself.
  72. とっさにNeutralInstantly and reflexively, with no time to think. It describes an action someone takes on the spur of the moment in response to something sudden or unexpected.
  73. とてWritten(1) After a noun, 'even X': X is included in a general claim, though one might expect it to be an exception. (2) After a verb or adjective (most often in た形), 'even if': the action or state makes no difference to the outcome. Literary in tone.
  74. とはWrittenExpresses surprise, shock, or deep emotion at an unexpected fact: 'to think that…!', 'I never imagined that…'. (1) The fact is followed by a clause of surprise such as 思わなかった; (2) the sentence ends at とは, leaving the reaction unsaid.
  75. とはいうもののWrittenConcessive "although X is admittedly true": the speaker accepts X, then states a reality or judgment that runs contrary to what X would suggest. (1) After a clause: "although X, Y"; (2) at the start of a sentence as a conjunction: "that said" or "even so."
  76. とはいえWrittenAlthough X (is true), still Y; it accepts X as fact, then adds a qualification or a result that goes against what X would lead one to expect. It can also open a sentence as a conjunction meaning 'that said'.
  77. とばかりにWritten“As if to say ~.” A person’s action conveys the message expressed by the quoted words, without necessarily saying them.
  78. ともすればWrittenAn adverb meaning 'be apt to' or 'all too easily'. It signals that someone or something naturally tends to slip into an undesirable state or action.
  79. ともなくWrittenExpresses doing something vaguely or without clear intention. (1) With the same verb repeated, it means doing something absentmindedly, without really meaning to; (2) with a question word, it means with no particular destination, target, time, or source in mind.
  80. ともなると / ともなればNeutralOnce a certain notable stage, status, time, or level is reached, a matching situation naturally follows: 'when it comes to X', 'once one becomes X'. (1) a particular time or event arriving; (2) reaching a certain rank or level.
  81. とりわけWrittenAn adverb meaning 'especially,' 'above all,' or 'in particular.' It singles out one item from a larger group or general statement as the most notable.
  82. と思いきやWrittenMarks an assumption the speaker held and shows that the actual outcome turned out contrary to it. It means "I thought …, but in fact …" and introduces a surprising result.
  83. と相まってWrittenMeans "combined with" or "coupled with." It shows that one factor works together with another to produce a result, often a stronger or more marked one than either would cause alone.
  84. ないではおかない / ずにはおかないWritten(1) Expresses a firm resolve to do something without fail, not letting a matter pass; (2) states that something inevitably provokes a feeling or reaction, often with causative verbs; (3) in the literary variant ずにはおかれない, means 'cannot help doing'.
  85. ないではすまない / ずにはすまないWrittenExpresses that one cannot get away without doing something: (1) the situation or one's responsibility makes the action unavoidable; (2) social or moral norms demand the action, such as apologizing, as a matter of course.
  86. ないとも限らないWrittenExpresses that a possibility cannot be ruled out: "it is not impossible that…", "… might just happen". Often used to justify a precaution or to warn of an undesirable outcome.
  87. ないまでもWrittenConcedes that a higher degree X is not reached, then asserts, hopes for, or demands a lesser degree Y: "even if not X, at least Y." (1) Used with a request or hope; (2) used to state a lesser result actually achieved.
  88. ないものかWrittenExpresses a strong, often wistful wish that something difficult could somehow come true, or a search for some way to bring it about: "Isn't there some way to…?" or "If only I could…"
  89. ないものでもないWrittenA hedged double negative meaning "it is not that I won't…" or "it is not impossible that…". It expresses (1) reluctant or conditional willingness to do something; (2) that a possibility cannot be entirely ruled out.
  90. ながらに / ながらのWrittenExpresses that something remains in, or is accompanied by, a certain state: (1) while in a state of (e.g. in tears); (2) unchanged since, as it has always been. ながらに works adverbially and ながらの modifies a noun. It is used mainly with a limited set of set words.
  91. なくしてWrittenMeans "without X, Y (is impossible)". It presents X as an indispensable condition. The clause that follows states a negative or impossible outcome.
  92. なくしてはWrittenMeans "without X, Y cannot happen." It presents the noun X as an indispensable condition. The following clause states that the outcome is impossible, or would not have been possible, without X.
  93. ならいざしらずWritten"X might be one thing, but…" The speaker sets aside X as a case that could be an exception or is not at issue, then states that the actual case is different. The second clause is often a negative or firm judgment, but it can also be a plain statement of fact.
  94. ならではNeutralExpresses that something is unique to or characteristic of a particular person, place, or thing, something only X has or could produce. Usually used with positive evaluation.
  95. なりWrittenExpresses that immediately after one action, the same person does a second, often sudden or unexpected action. Equivalent to “as soon as,” “the moment (that),” or “no sooner had … than.”
  96. なり〜なりNeutral"A or B (or something like that)". It lists possible options as examples and suggests the listener choose one, typically in advice, instructions or suggestions about something still to be done.
  97. なりともWritten(1) After an interrogative, it means 'any ~ at all' (何なりとも = anything whatsoever); (2) after a minimal quantity, it means 'even just ~' or 'at least ~', expressing a modest wish or request.
  98. なりに / なりのNeutralExpresses doing something or having something in a way that fits the limits or nature of X: (1) なりに: 'in one's own way, as far as X allows'; (2) なりの: 'one's own, characteristic of X.' It acknowledges X's limitations while recognizing effort or individuality within them.
  99. にあたらないWrittenSays that a reaction or evaluation is not warranted by the situation: (1) there is no reason to be surprised, upset or discouraged; (2) something does not deserve praise, blame or a similar judgment. Roughly "there is no need to ~" or "it does not deserve ~."
  100. にあってWritten(1) In or under a particular situation or period, usually special or demanding, which shapes what follows; (2) in a particular position or role, with what is expected given that role; (3) even in such a situation (にあっても), with something that still holds.
  101. にかかっているNeutralExpresses that an outcome, marked as the topic with は, depends on or hinges on a decisive factor marked with に: 'X depends on Y.'
  102. にかたくないWrittenIt is not difficult to ~; one can readily ~. Used with a small set of words of imagining or inferring (想像, 察する, etc.) to say that a situation, outcome, or feeling is easy to picture or understand.
  103. にしたってCasualCasual concessive meaning 'even if / even though / granted that'. (1) Even if X happens, the speaker's intention stays the same; (2) granted that X is true, Y should still hold, often as reproach; (3) after a noun, 'even X / X too', meaning X is no exception.
  104. にしてWrittenA written pattern that spotlights a point, span or combination: (1) at a notable stage or age, often with ようやく or はじめて (only at X did…); (2) within a span presented as remarkably short (in just…); (3) being X and at the same time Y.
  105. にたえる / にたえないWritten(1) にたえる: worth doing, or able to withstand something such as reading, viewing or criticism; (2) にたえない: too unpleasant or awful to bear doing; (3) にたえない with emotion nouns: to feel something extremely deeply (e.g. 感謝にたえない).
  106. にとどまらずWrittenNot limited to X; going beyond X. It shows that something reaches past a certain range, area, or level and extends to a wider one, which the following clause states.
  107. には及ばないFormalExpresses that there is no need to do something, often to reassure the listener that an action they are considering is unnecessary.
  108. にまつわるWrittenConnected with or surrounding something. It links a noun to things that cling to it or are bound up with it: (1) stories, legends, or memories attached to it; (2) rumors, troubles, doubts, or mysteries surrounding it.
  109. にもほどがあるCasual(1) Says that a quality or behavior goes beyond reasonable limits, often in criticism; (2) playfully treats a positive quality as astonishingly extreme.
  110. にもましてWrittenEmphatically states that something goes beyond a point of comparison, whether an earlier state, the usual level, or something already notable: (1) with question words (何・誰・いつ), 'above all / more than anything (anyone, ever)'; (2) with a noun or それ, 'even more than X'.
  111. によらずWrittenRegardless of; irrespective of. Indicates that a difference in the category named by the noun (gender, age, nationality, etc.) makes no difference to what follows. It is a formal, mainly written pattern.
  112. に引き換えWrittenIn contrast to / as opposed to. It places two things side by side and stresses how strikingly different they are, often implying that one side compares favorably with the other.
  113. に言わせればNeutral"If you ask X," "in X's opinion." It introduces a person whose frank, often critical opinion follows, frequently one that differs from the general view.
  114. に限ったことではないWrittenStates that something is not unique to X and applies more widely: "it is not only X," "it is not limited to X." It most often ends a sentence, with the wider scope stated next, but the connective form ではなく can link to a following clause.
  115. に至ってはWritten“As for X / When it comes to X.” Singles out the most extreme case among several of the same kind, usually to express surprise, criticism, or a negative judgment about it.
  116. に至ってもWrittenEven when things have reached a certain extreme situation or stage, something still does not change. It is typically used to criticize or express surprise at a lack of response or progress.
  117. に至る / に至ったWrittenExpresses that a situation finally reaches a certain result, state, or stage, usually after a long process or series of events: (1) ending up in an often serious or negative outcome; (2) finally arriving at a conclusion or agreement. Often translates as 'to come to', 'to lead to', or 'to end in'.
  118. に至るまでWritten(1) Stresses that something extends all the way to, and includes, an extreme, minor, or unexpected item: 'even down to', 'all the way up to'; (2) marks the endpoint of a range in time or space: 'right up to'.
  119. に照らしてWrittenIn light of; measured against. It uses a standard such as a law, rule, or past experience as a yardstick to compare with and judge something: (1) judging by a rule or norm; (2) judging by experience or known facts.
  120. に先駆けてWritten(1) Ahead of others, being the first to do something before competitors or rivals; (2) prior to an event, doing something beforehand.
  121. に則ってWrittenMeans “in accordance with” or “in conformity with.” It describes carrying out an action in keeping with an established rule or standard.
  122. に即してWrittenIn accordance with, in line with. It indicates that an action or judgment conforms to something: (1) a rule or law; (2) actual facts or circumstances such as reality or the situation at hand.
  123. に足りないWrittenSays that something does not merit a certain action or evaluation. (1) The matter is too minor to warrant a reaction (not worth ~ing). (2) The person or thing lacks the qualities needed to deserve it (not worthy of ~, e.g. 信頼に足りない).
  124. に足る / に足りるWrittenIndicates that something is worth doing or has enough merit to justify an action, e.g. 'worthy of trust', 'worth watching'. It is typically used before a noun to describe a person or thing as deserving of that action.
  125. に値するWrittenExpresses that something deserves or merits a certain action, evaluation, or reward, such as praise, respect, recommendation, attention, or an honor. It is mostly used for positive judgments of things, people, or deeds, though nouns like 非難 are also possible.
  126. のなんのってCasualExpresses that something is so extreme it is hard to put into words, as in 'so ~ you wouldn't believe it.' It is typically followed by a clause describing the resulting situation or the speaker's reaction.
  127. の極みWrittenIndicates that a feeling or state has reached its highest possible degree: "the height of ~," "the utmost ~." (1) the peak of an emotion or inner state; (2) an extreme state or quality, often in evaluative remarks.
  128. の至りFormal(1) The utmost degree of a feeling or evaluation, used in formal expressions of gratitude, honor, humility or apology, and sometimes in judgments such as 愚の至り; (2) in the fixed expression 若気の至り, an act that resulted from youthful rashness.
  129. はおろかWritten“Let alone X; not to mention X.” It treats X as a case where the statement obviously holds, then adds a more extreme case Y where it holds as well. It is most common in negative statements about an unfortunate situation, but positive statements are also possible.
  130. ばこそWrittenPrecisely because; it is only because. Stresses that the stated reason is the real reason behind the main clause: (1) a sincere motive behind an action that may seem harsh or unexpected; (2) a condition that led to a present, usually good, result.
  131. はさておきNeutralSetting X aside: the speaker deliberately puts one topic or factor out of the present discussion to focus on another that matters more now. It is used (1) to drop a side topic and move to the main point; (2) to set one factor aside and prioritize another.
  132. ばそれまでだNeutral(1) If X happens, that is the end of it: everything achieved or done before becomes pointless or is lost; (2) If you put it as X, there is nothing more to say, often implying the matter deserves more thought.
  133. びるWrittenAttaches to certain nouns and adjective stems to form a verb meaning 'to take on the air or qualities of X; to look or seem X' (e.g. 大人びる 'to seem grown-up', 古びる 'to look old/worn').
  134. ぶりNeutralAttached to a length of time or a past event, ぶり means 'for the first time in (that period)' or 'for the first time since (that event)'. It marks something happening again after an interval in which it did not happen. The interval can be long or short, as in 5年ぶり or 5分ぶり.
  135. ぶるNeutralAttached to a noun or adjective stem, ぶる means to make a showy, affected display of a quality or status, whether or not the person actually has it: (1) to put on airs about a status or quality one has; (2) to pose as a certain type of person. It is almost always critical.
  136. べからずWrittenA classical-style prohibition meaning "must not" or "do not." It states firmly what is forbidden and typically appears on signs, notices, rules and proverbs.
  137. べくWrittenExpresses purpose: "in order to do," "with the aim of doing." The preceding clause states a goal, and the following clause describes a deliberate action taken to achieve it.
  138. べくしてWrittenExpresses that an outcome came about exactly as it was bound to, given its causes: (1) an undesirable event that was inevitable; (2) a good result that was naturally earned or deserved.
  139. べくもないWrittenExpresses that something is utterly impossible, usually because of circumstances: one cannot even hope for, know, or compare it. It is used with a limited set of verbs such as 望む and 知る.
  140. ほうがましだNeutralSays that X is the less bad of two undesirable options: 'X would be better' or 'I'd rather X.' The rejected alternative is often stated first with くらいなら or なら. The pattern can be used hyperbolically to reject that alternative strongly.
  141. まじきWrittenExpresses that an action is utterly inappropriate or unforgivable given someone's position or status. It means 'should not be done' or 'unbecoming of.' It is the attributive form of the classical auxiliary まじ, so it always modifies a following noun such as 行為, 発言 or 態度.
  142. までだNeutral(1) Expresses calm resolve: if things don't work out, one will simply take the remaining course of action, meaning "I'll just…" or "there's nothing for it but to…"; (2) after a past-tense verb, it means one merely did something, with no deeper intention.
  143. までもないNeutralSays an action is unnecessary because the situation does not call for going that far, either because the matter is already obvious or because the action would be excessive or not worth the effort. (1) there's no need even to do ~; (2) in the set phrase 言うまでもない, 'it goes without saying'.
  144. まみれNeutral(1) Attached to a noun, it means "covered all over with" a substance, usually something unpleasant such as mud, blood, sweat, or dust; (2) figuratively, it means being steeped in or burdened by something, typically negative, such as debt or scandal.
  145. まるっきりCasualAn emphatic adverb meaning 'completely' or 'entirely'. (1) With a negative, it means 'not at all'; (2) before a noun with の, or with a positive predicate, it means 'utterly' or 'a complete ~'.
  146. めくWrittenAttached to a noun, めく forms a verb meaning 'to show signs of' or 'to take on the air of' something: (1) the signs or feel of a season appearing; (2) having a hint of some quality, resembling it without fully being it.
  147. もさることながらWrittenAcknowledges X as noteworthy and then adds Y, usually with more emphasis on Y: 'X, of course, but also / even more so Y.'
  148. もしくはWrittenA formal conjunction meaning "or" that presents two or more alternatives, any one of which is acceptable or applies. It is typical of official documents, notices, and instructions.
  149. もしないでNeutralMeans "without even doing X": the speaker stresses that a basic or expected action was skipped. It usually criticizes someone or expresses regret, but it can also convey surprise or admiration that something was achieved without that step.
  150. ものでNeutralGives a reason or circumstance, usually as a personal excuse or apologetic explanation for an undesirable result: 'because, since, the thing is…'. It is often used when apologizing for or justifying one's own actions.
  151. ものとしてWrittenMeans 'on the assumption that' or 'treating it as though'. (1) A situation is officially deemed to be the case, whether or not it actually is; (2) someone acts or prepares on the premise that something will be so.
  152. ものと思われるWrittenExpresses the writer's or speaker's cautious, objective-sounding presumption: 'it is thought/presumed that…'. It presents a personal judgment impersonally, (1) predicting a likely outcome or state; (2) interpreting the cause or intention behind something.
  153. ものをWrittenExpresses regret or reproach that a better or easier course of action was available but not taken, so things turned out badly: "when (one) could simply have…, yet…" or "if only…." It typically follows 〜ばいい／〜ばよかった, and the regrettable outcome may be stated or left implied.
  154. もはやWrittenAn adverb marking that a situation has passed a certain point and is now different from before: (1) 'no longer, not anymore', with negative predicates; (2) 'already, by now', stating that something has reached a certain stage.
  155. も顧みず / を顧みずWrittenDoing something without regard for a risk, sacrifice, or objection that would normally hold one back: (1) disregarding danger or cost to oneself; (2) disregarding others' opposition or concerns. も adds the nuance "even".
  156. やしないCasualA colloquial, emphatic negative meaning "(someone) won't/can't possibly". It flatly denies that an action will happen or is possible, often with a tone of contempt, frustration or exasperation.
  157. や否やWrittenAs soon as; the moment (that). It describes a second event happening immediately after the first, with almost no gap in time.
  158. ゆえにWrittenA formal, literary expression of cause. (1) After a clause or noun: 'because of, owing to', stating a reason from which the result follows. (2) At the start of a sentence: 'therefore, hence', as in logical argument.
  159. をいいことにNeutralTaking advantage of a convenient situation, such as someone's absence, weakness, or leniency, as an opportunity to do something. The following action is usually selfish or improper and viewed critically, though the pattern can occasionally describe harmless use of an opportunity.
  160. をおいてWrittenSingles out a person or thing as the only suitable candidate for a particular role: no one or nothing else will do.
  161. をもって /をもちましてFormal(1) Marks a point in time at which something ends or takes effect: "as of, with (today, etc.)"; (2) marks the means, basis, or support by which something is accomplished: "by means of, with, thanks to". をもちまして is the more polite form.
  162. をものともせずWrittenUndaunted by or in defiance of: the subject bravely overcomes a serious difficulty, danger, or opposition as if it were nothing and goes ahead with an action. It is typically used to praise someone else's courage or determination.
  163. をよそにWrittenMeans "disregarding" or "paying no heed to" something such as others' objections, worries, expectations or warnings. The subject goes ahead with an action as if that thing did not concern them.
  164. を押してWrittenDespite a known obstacle, such as others' opposition, illness, or old age, the subject deliberately pushes through it and goes ahead with an action. Senses: (1) acting despite others' opposition; (2) forcing oneself to act despite a personal hardship.
  165. を機にWrittenTaking an event as an occasion or turning point to begin something new or make a change. The following clause usually describes a deliberate action or decision prompted by that event.
  166. を禁じ得ないWrittenExpresses that a strong emotion wells up in response to a situation and cannot be suppressed; 'cannot help feeling ~', 'cannot hold back ~'. It follows a noun denoting a feeling such as tears, anger, sympathy, or emotion.
  167. を経てWritten(1) After going through a period, experience, or process (having passed through ~); (2) By way of a place or intermediary on the route to a destination (via ~). It marks the stage passed through before the main outcome.
  168. を兼ねてNeutralIndicates that one action or event also serves as another, so that two purposes or functions are combined in a single occasion: 'also serving as', 'doubling as', 'combined with'.
  169. を限りにWritten(1) Marks a point in time or a final occasion as the last time something that has continued until then takes place: "as of ~, … will end." (2) In the fixed phrase 声を限りに, it means "at the top of one's voice."
  170. を前提としてWrittenMeans "on the premise of X" or "assuming X": (1) taking X as a precondition or requirement and acting on it; (2) assuming X will hold, often something not yet realized, and planning around it.
  171. を踏まえてWrittenTaking something already established, such as facts, results, trends, or earlier discussion, as the premise or foundation for a next action or judgment. Roughly 'building on', 'in light of', 'with ~ in mind'.
  172. を皮切りにWrittenStarting with X; with X as the starting point. It marks the event that opens a series of subsequent events, which then follow one after another or spread out.
  173. を余儀なくされるWrittenExpresses that someone is forced by circumstances beyond their control to do something, usually something undesirable. It means "be compelled to ~" or "have no choice but to ~" and takes a noun describing the action.
  174. んがためWrittenExpresses a strong purpose: 'in order to ~', 'for the sake of ~'. It emphasizes a firm determination to achieve a goal. The expression is literary and old-fashioned.
  175. んばかりにWrittenDescribes a manner so extreme that an action seems about to happen: "as if about to ~" or "almost ~ing." (1) Someone looks on the verge of actually doing something; (2) with 言う, someone's behavior all but says something outright ("as if to say ~").
  176. 案の定NeutralJust as expected; sure enough. Marks an outcome that matches what the speaker had predicted or feared, most often an unfavorable one.
  177. 羽目になるNeutralExpresses ending up in an unpleasant or undesirable situation, often because of one's own actions or bad luck, and conveys regret or dismay about the outcome. Typically translated as 'end up (having to) do ~'.
  178. 何しろNeutralAn adverb meaning "after all", "anyway" or "you see". It puts strong emphasis on a reason or circumstance that the speaker treats as decisive and overriding. It usually introduces a cause, and the clause is typically closed with から or ので.
  179. 可能性があるNeutralExpresses that something may happen or may be the case: "there is a possibility that…". It states likelihood fairly objectively and can describe both desirable and undesirable outcomes.
  180. 極まる・極まりないWrittenExpresses that a quality is present to the utmost degree: 'extremely', 'utterly'. It is used mostly for strong, usually negative, evaluations. Despite the ない, 極まりない is not a negation and means the same as 極まる.
  181. 嫌いがあるWrittenExpresses that a person or thing has an undesirable tendency or inclination to do something or be a certain way. It is used to point out a habitual negative trait, often critically.
  182. 限りだWrittenExpresses the speaker's own feeling at its most intense: "extremely ~, as ~ as can be." It follows emotion adjectives such as 寂しい or 残念.
  183. 始末だNeutralDescribes a bad outcome reached after a series of unfavorable events or behavior, usually with a critical or exasperated tone: "it has come to the point that…, and now…". It typically ends the sentence and presents the final result as deplorable.
  184. 思いをするNeutralDescribes experiencing a particular feeling because of a situation, often an unpleasant one. The feeling is named before 思い.
  185. 折にFormalOn the occasion of; when (a chance arises). A formal, courteous way to refer to a particular occasion, such as a visit, at which something is done or hoped to be done.

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